On 22 November the British took Basra, forcing the Ottomans to retreat to Qurna. An initial British ground force landed 3 miles (5 km) from Qurna on the River Euphrates on 3 December. As the ground force neared the town, heavy fire forced them to retreat until 6 December, when... More
The Japanese invaded Malaya in December 1941, working their way towards the defensively vulnerable Singapore and amassing around 30,000 troops across the Strait of Johore in preparation for an invasion. The British ignored intelligence of a concealed build-up of Japanese soldiers in the northwest, instead focussing their defensive forces to... More
Simultaneous operations against Axis ground, air and sea forces in Tunisia in April and May 1943 served to tighten the stranglehold on the remaining German forces, who had been pushed eastwards towards the sea. German air transport capabilities were targeted and severely hindered under Operation Flax, whilst an Allied naval... More
From early 1944 the Fast Carrier Task Force, made up of several task groups typically built around four aircraft carriers and their support vessels, was the main US strike force in the Pacific Ocean. The Carrier Force worked in conjunction with amphibious forces and the US marines to provide devastating... More
Carthage vied with Rome for dominance in the Mediterranean in the 3rd century BCE: for its temerity, Rome razed it to the ground in 146 BCE. But the advantages of the site prevailed, and a new city grew up there; by 145 CE, it was the third city of the... More
In 1716, a Turkoman traveller arrived at the court of Peter the Great, with a sack of ‘golden sand’ allegedly from the khanate of Khiva. Prince Bekovich-Cherkassky was promptly dispatched with an army to conquer the khanate, and acquire the gold for Russia. They never returned. According to rumour, the... More
The ‘Affair at Cassville’ scarcely merited the epithet ‘battle’. Indeed, Confederate General Johnston’s aversion to engage helped to cement a pattern that would lead to his abrupt removal by Robert E. Lee before the Battles of Atlanta. After successively retreating from putative stands at Dalton, Resaca and Calhoun, Johnson had... More
Estimates of the total number of human deaths attributable to World War II vary widely, and have increased over time as new research, especially in the former Soviet territories, has brought new evidence to light. As a result, the formerly accepted estimate of about 60 million now seems conservative, and... More
Catal-Huyuk was a huge settlement established c. 6000 BCE in south-central Anatolia. It is one of the largest and most advanced Neolithic sites ever uncovered and is represents the shift from nomadic life into permanent settlements. Catal-Huyuk is thought to have grown as farming began to flourish, with the region’s... More
After the union of Catalonia and Aragon by the marriage, then rule, of Queen Petronilla in 1137, the kingdom’s main phase of expansion came under James I, ‘the Conqueror’ (r. 1285–1327). He reconquered the Kingdom of Valencia and the Balearic Islands from the Moors, and annexed Bearn and Languedoc from... More
Arian Christianity, which held that the Son of God is not co-eternal with God the father, was a heretical brand of Christianity that took route amongst many of the people whom Rome called “barbarians”. Alaric the Visigoth, and Genseric the Vandal, who sacked Rome in for 410 and 455 CE,... More
The Irish statesman Daniel O’ Connell (1775–1847) was a pioneer of the political mass-movement, which he engaged first to achieve Catholic Emancipation (1829), then in pursuit of repeal of the Act of Union. He was abetted by Thomas Wyse, who established Liberal Clubs to activate the support of the Catholic... More