Byzantium’s massive loss of territory to the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century had one substantial upside: its shrunken borders were much more defensible. The Byzantines adapted pragmatically to their reduced circumstances. The system of military and administrative divisions called themes was established by 700 CE and harkened back to... More
In the early 10th century, Simeon the Great established a Bulgarian Empire that spanned the Balkan peninsula. While officially at peace with the Byzantines, the Bulgars turned a blind eye to Magyar raids of Byzantine territory, while the Byzantines covertly supported a rebellion against Simeon that created an independent Serbian... More
In 58 BCE, events in Gaul demanded Roman intervention. A king of the Germanic Suevi, Ariovisitus, attacked the Aedui, a Roman ally, while the Helvetii were threatening to encroach from Switzerland into Gallia Transalpina. The Roman governor there, Julius Caesar, scenting glory, reacted swiftly, crushing first the Helvetii, then Ariovisitus.... More
As part of his plan to turn Egypt into a world power, Khedive Ismail set about reinventing Cairo in the image of a European city. Alongside sweeping social reforms, including the construction of hundreds of schools and massive expansion of Egypt’s rail network, Ismail began construction of a new area... More
In 969 the Fatimid dynasty established Cairo as their capital, near the site from which ibn Tulun and his successors enjoyed brief independence, ruling Egypt and Syria (868–905). Ibn Tulun’s city was razed to the ground (905), when the Abbasids reasserted control, but his mosque survived. By the 12th century,... More
The East Africa Campaign was a series of battles in the Horn of Africa between Allied forces (mainly units from Commonwealth states) and Axis forces (predominantly Italian units). The Italian forces were weak and their only notable successes were the capture of Kassala in Sudan in July 1940, and the... More
The Mesopotamian spring offensive in 1917 had led to the capture of Baghdad, but also heavy casualties. Accordingly, the Allied chief of staff, General Maude, rested his troops over the summer, before a limited autumn campaign saw the capture of Ar Ramadi, a flood control station on the Euphrates. Maude... More
The Nubian (Kushite) chieftain, Piy, advanced into Thebes where, having asserted control, he renamed himself Thutmose II, in homage to the 18th Dynasty pharaoh who had had converted the Kushites to the Cult of Amun. The incumbent pharaoh retreated to the Kingdom of Heraklepolis. Although Piy’s power was concentrated in... More
In a brief but vigorous reign, Psamtek II acted decisively to pre-empt a recurrence of the Kushite threat posed by their King Antamani from his capital in Napata. With a bipartite force of Egyptians and Greek/Carian mercenaries, he advanced as far as Kurgus at the fifth cataract, en route sacking... More
The formation of an anti-Swedish coalition between Frederick IV of Denmark, Peter I of Russia and Augustus II, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, began the Great Northern War. Charles XII of Sweden retaliated by attacking Denmark and besieging Copenhagen. He relieved the besieged city of Narva from the... More
The first Persian invasion of Greece ended with a decisive Greek victory. The invasion was ordered by Darius I in retaliation for the support given by Athens and Eretria to the Ionian cities during their Revolt. The first campaign was directed at Thrace and Macedonia, which became a client kingdom.... More
Kamose (ruled c. 1543–40 BCE), the final king of the 17th Dynasty, only reigned for three years before he died. In his final year, frustrated by his kingdom serving as a vassal to the occupying Hyksos, he crossed the border at Cusae and massacred the population of Nefrusy, his goal... More