Until the landmark Roe v. Wade Supreme Court decision (1973) overturned laws against abortion, it was illegal in 30 states, and only permissible in special circumstances in 16 others. It remains a hotly contested issue; public opinion overall tends to be roughly evenly divided, with passionate ‘pro-life’ and ‘pro-choice’ camps.... More
The French established Acadia (Nova Scotia), along the shores of the St Lawrence River, in the 1600s, and it played an important role in the French and British fur trade. After 1713, the British took full control of Acadia and tension between the French and English settlers within the community... More
The territory across the Mississippi was largely unexplored and attracted frontiersmen who mapped and colonized much of the area. James Nolan, who left New Orleans in 1792 to horse trade with the Spanish and Indians in what is now Texas, was typical of these early pioneers. After the Louisiana Purchase... More
‘Stonewall’ Jackson’s spring 1862 Shenandoah Valley operation in West Virginia was essentially diversionary. The Union armies in the East were in the process of mounting an offensive against the Confederate capital Richmond, and Jackson’s aim was to tie up Union military resources through a campaign of manoeuvre. In this he... More
The ‘nomes’, or administrative divisions of ancient Egypt, are named after the Greek nomos, meaning ‘law’. The number of nomes and their boundaries changed over time, and the location of some are still uncertain. Each nome was represented by its own symbol, often depicted on temple walls. The capital city... More
Nomes, derived from the Greek ‘nomos’, meaning ‘law’, were the administrative divisions of Ancient Egypt, with this system of division dating back to the Old Kingdom (2575 BCE). There were 22 nomes in Upper Egypt and these are numbered mostly sequentially along the fertile flood plain of the Nile valley.... More
Victory in the Second Battle of the Marne at the beginning of August emboldened Marshal Foch, the Allied Supreme Commander, to order a full offensive on 8 August. It was decided to focus on Picardy rather than Flanders, as the terrain better suited tank warfare. The attack was broad based,... More
The Red Army’s Baltic Offensive, which began in the autumn of 1944, focussed on pushing German Army Group North out of Russia and the Baltic countries, which it had occupied since the German invasion in 1941. Continuing the momentum in the Soviet Union’s favour all along the eastern front, the... More
Following Operation Enduring Freedom, conducted by the US, with assistance from numerous other countries and the UN International Security Assistance Force, the influence and violent interventions of the Taliban were gradually eradicated. Afghanistan was able to hold its first direct presidential election on 9 October 2004, ushering in Hamid Karzai... More
As part of the occupation and reconstruction effort following the US invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, various NATO forces assumed command of regional centres across Afghanistan from 2003. These forces were provided by numerous NATO countries and were tasked with ensuring security and assisting the general day-to-day functions of the... More
In 1978 the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan led the Saur Revolution against President Daoud Khan, who had begun a crackdown against their growing political influence. The new Communist government, led by Hafizullah Amin, was widely unpopular and quickly garnered armed opposition from Mujahideen (fighters engaged in a jihad) who... More
Although there is evidence that iron was worked in Africa 5,000 years ago, with knowledge of smelting techniques evident in the northern fringes of the Bantu homeland, ironworking began to flourish c. 500 BCE in sub-Saharan Africa. There are different theories about the spread of ironworking, with many favouring the... More