As part of the wider battle for Arras, the Canadians were tasked with capturing the German vantage point of Vimy Ridge. Having refined a number of field combat tactics after the chaos at the Somme, British and Canadian troops came into the battle with a much more focussed approach. A... More
In autumn 1864 Major General Sterling Price’s Confederate army was engaged in a six-week raid on the state of Missouri, intending to capture it from the Unionists. Major General Samuel R. Curtis marshalled the Kansas state militia and 4,000 volunteer cavalry veterans (‘the army of the borders’) to defend themselves... More
The Battle of Winchester in the Shenandoah River valley on 19 September 1864, commenced at 4.30 am, when Union forces struggled through the narrow Berryville Canyon, encountering heavy resistance there. The second phase of battle began at 11.30 in the woods outside Winchester and after five hours of intense fighting... More
After the capture of Front Royal on May 23, ‘Stonewall’ Jackson chased and harried Union General Nathan Banks along the Shenandoah Valley, seizing supplies and capturing stragglers. At Winchester, Banks resolved to make a stand. Deploying his forces in front of the town, Banks held a strong defensive position with... More
By 5 pm, the Confederate infantry had formed a tight interior line position behind fortifications near the unoccupied Milroy Fort and spreading southwards to Senseny Road. Union cavalry brigades charged the Confederates, using cavalry and infantry, with one Confederate soldier stating: ‘I never saw such a sight in my life... More
Charles I, heading a Scots army, needed Royalist backing to snowball en route if his dash south was to succeed. However, Cromwell, supposedly stranded in northern Scotland, had anticipated the invasion, and had placed suspected Royalist sympathisers under close surveillance, while grassroots Presbyterian support failed to materialize. By the time... More
In the build-up to the Battle of Yarmuk, Islamic armies had inflicted decisive defeats on the Sassanids before commencing the conquest of Byzantine Syria. Alerted to a Byzantine counteroffensive, General Khalid gathered his Islamic forces, east of the River Yarmuk, with his flanks protected by a hill and a ravine.... More
Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone, commanded the Irish rebels who laid siege to Blackwater fort, just to the northwest of Armagh. The Earl of Ormonde, the English commander in Ireland, was reluctant to relieve the ‘scurvey fort’, but Sir Henry Bagenal (whose daughter Mabel had eloped with O’ Neill and... More
The Roman consul Scipio had already defeated the Carthaginians in Spain when he obtained Senate approval to invade their North African homeland, with their star general Hannibal still encamped in Italy. When the Romans landed, Hannibal was hastily summoned back, and confronted Scipio, with a numerically superior army, at Zama.... More
Necho I, ruler of the city of Sais, died in 664 BCE fighting the Kushites, invaders from Nubia, on the behalf of his Assyrian overlords. The Assyrians rewarded his son, Psamtek I, with the governorships of Memphis and Sais. While careful to maintain cordial relations with the Assyrians, Psamtek amassed... More
The Papal States were territories in central Italy under direct papal control, in both a secular and spiritual sense. In the 4th century, the bishops of Rome acquired lands known as the patrimony of St Peter. After the Lombard invasions (568–774) and the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in Italy,... More
Lebanon is unique in the Middle East in having a population roughly equally split between Sunni Muslims, Shiite Muslims and Maronite Christians. In 1971, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) militants were expelled from Jordan, many finding a haven – and base for continued activities – in Lebanon. In 1975, initial conflict... More