By 1639, the Spanish in the Netherlands had just one North Sea port left, Dunkirk, which was blockaded by the Dutch rebels. An armada of 67 ships under Admiral-General Antonio de Oquendo was sent to relieve Dunkirk, but was intercepted by just 17 Dutch ships under Admiral Maarten Tromp. Despite... More
When Franco launched his Aragon offensive in March 1938, the Republicans were exhausted and demoralized by the hugely bloody, but ultimately futile, defence of Teruel during the preceding winter. The Nationalists soon broke through, reaching the Mediterranean and splitting the Republican territories in two. The Republican counterattack overnight on 24–25... More
After their victory off central Chile in the Battle of Coronel, the German fleet sped to the Falkland Islands to sabotage the British radio station and supply base in Port Stanley. Anticipating the German offensive and determined to reverse the Coronel defeat, the British had installed seven cruisers in the... More
Alexander’s campaign to conquer the Persian Empire had begun in the spring of 334 BCE and was successfully concluded 328 BCE with the defeat of Bessos, the Satrap of Bactria, and the Sogdian warlord Spitamenes. Alexander then launched a campaign into the Indian subcontinent in 327 BCE. His army was... More
After completing their destruction of the Khwarizm Empire, the Mongol generals, Jebe and Subuta, rampaged north, through the Caucasus, subduing Georgia and Black Sea tribes en route. The tribal union of Polovtsy sought the aid of the principalities of Kievan Rus in defending their territories. Finding themselves under attack, the... More
On 21 July 1798, Napoleon’s forces engaged in battle with the Mamluks, elite Egyptian warriors who were now a semi-autonomous group within the Ottoman Empire. The Mamluks' strength lay in their cavalry and, aware of this, Napoleon arranged his forces, under Generals Reynier, Dugua, Vial and Bon, into large divisional... More
The famous last stand of King Leonidas and his 300 Spartan hoplites against the massed forces of Xerxes I is the stuff of legend. A Greek force of some 5,000 men, commanded by King Leonidas of Sparta, was prepared to fight to the death to stop the Persian advance at... More
On Palm Sunday, 29 March 1461, the Plantagenet House of York, having gained the support of London and the south, harried the army of the rival Plantagenet House of Lancaster into Towton, south Yorkshire. As dawn broke, the Lancastrian army of 42,000 men organized themselves into three divisions while their... More
The Battle of Trafalgar was one of the most decisive naval battles ever fought, and ended in the defeat of a combined French-Spanish fleet near Cape Trafalgar, in southwest Spain. The British fleet, under Admiral Lord Nelson, had consistently thwarted Napoleon Bonaparte’s attempts to gain naval dominance, essential for an... More
Russia had provoked war with Japan in 1904; gorged on decades of 'unequal treaties' with China, it held a colonialist contempt for Asiatic opponents that proved wholly misconceived. In a series of engagements the Japanese defeated the Russians on both land and sea, forcing redeployment of Russias Baltic Fleet to... More
Union General Andrew J. Smith was sent by William T. Sherman to Mississippi to negate the threat to his railroad supply line posed by Nathan B. Forrest’s marauding cavalry. Dug in around Tupelo, Smith had a strong numerical advantage, with 14,000 men, but stubbornly resisted Forrest’s attempts to lure him... More
By securing the various forts and earthworks of the Région Fortifée de Verdun, General Falkenhayn intended to exploit the area’s historic place in the French psyche in order to draw in French forces and bombard them, causing mass casualties so that France would ‘bleed to death’. Underestimating the German threat... More