In the build-up to the Yom Kippur War, the Israelis were placed under extreme American pressure not to launch a pre-emptive strike; something they had done, with devastating success, in 1967. Consequently, the Egyptians were able to take the initiative. When they launched their offensive across the Suez Canal on... More
The Israeli defences in Sinai took a severe pummelling in the first week of the war. The line of fortifications east of the Suez Canal had been repeatedly breached, but by 14 October, the Egyptian offensive had been repulsed, and, with the Syrian assault on the Golan Heights likewise stalled,... More
At the outset of their Golan Heights campaign, Syria had a 10:1 advantage in troop numbers, and a 5:1 advantage in tanks. As in Sinai, the first three days developed into a series of last ditch Israeli defensive operations, made all the more critical by the proximity of the action... More
The Warwick Line of Confederate fortifications ran across the Virginia peninsula from Skiff Creek to Yorktown. Its defence against McClellan’s invading Union Army of the Potomac was entrusted to General Magruder, a keen amateur actor, who paraded his meagre defence force up and down the line with elaborate theatricality, gulling... More
After the division of the Mongol Empire in 1259, it split into four separate khanates, controlled by various elements of the Mongolian ruling class. The Yuan Dynasty was founded by Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, and comprised the traditional northern Chinese Empire. Kublai Khan was careful to portray himself... More
The fort of Závist in Bohemia occupies a hill, overlooking a river and fertile landscape. It was first occupied late in the Hallstatt phase of Celtic culture. Initially unfortified, the Acropolis enclosure at its summit may have been a ceremonial site. Around 500 BCE, and earthwork rampart was added, topped... More
The first Zeppelin raid on London was on 31 May 1915. London had never experienced an aerial assault. The Kaiser had deferred attacking the capital because of his close ties to the Royal family. The hydrogen-fuelled Zeppelins were huge, cigar-shaped planes which travelled at speed and could carry a large... More
The Zhou overthrew the Shang and founded their dynasty with the justification of the Mandate of Heaven, the notion that China should be governed by one, worthy ruler. The early years (1046–771 BCE) are known as the Western Zhou period, with the capital at Haojing and a solidification of power... More
As the Germans advanced towards Russia during Operation Barbarossa in the second half of 1941, they came across a line of outdated Soviet defensive fortifications known as the Stalin Line. Following the construction of the Molotov line further west after the beginning of the war, the fortifications of the Stalin... More
Shaka was the illegitimate son of a Zulu chief, who came to prominence as a general of the neighbouring Mthethwa. After wresting leadership of the Zulu, he embarked on a series of campaigns and raids, expanding the Zulu kingdom by conquest, vassalage and displacement. He is credited with a number... More