In 1990, the US population was estimated at 248,709,873, of whom 31.2 million were 65 years or older. Statistics confirm that in all age groups over 65, women consistently outnumbered men, reflecting their longer life expectancy. Between 65 to 74 years there were 10.2 million women to 7.9 million men.... More
In 1850 women played a significant role in the industrialization process, with many working up to 14 hours a day in manufacturing industries which included woollen and cotton textiles, paper, rubber goods and shoes. Angry female mill workers in Pennsylvania brought about a ten-hour limit on the working day after... More
Utah granted female suffrage in 1870, preceded only by Wyoming (1869). Congress promptly disenfranchised Utah’s women (1887) after they had the temerity to vote for Mormon polygamy. Generally, the Mountain Zone states proved most progressive with Colorado (1893) and Idaho (1896) following their neighbours: the rest of the West would... More
In 1984, Mississippi became the final state of the Union to ratify the 19th Amendment, which declared ‘The right of citizens…to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex’. The Mississippian ratification was academic: to take effect the Amendment... More
The relative strengths and dispositions of naval forces at the outset of World War I favoured an Allied strategy of containment. Outside the European seaboards, the Central Powers had only one significant naval presence, the German East Asia squadron headquartered at Tsingtao in China (it would be destroyed attempting to... More
The Security Council of the United Nations is responsible for the maintenance of global peace and security and in 2009 added Resolution 1904, reaffirming the need to combat by ‘all means’ the threat posed to international peace caused by terrorist acts. In 2009, the Security Council also supported a mandate... More
Afonso de Albuquerque, the ‘Caesar of the East’, established the lynchpins of Portuguese commerce in the Indian Ocean, crucially Malacca (1511) at the choke-point of the China trade, and Goa, which gave access to the wealthy Indian sub-continent. As a consequence, the Venetian control of the overland trade, via the... More
Following the World Trade Center attacks on 11 September 2001, the US launched its war on terror. With the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the invasion of Iraq two years later in 2003, the US aimed to eliminate the leadership of Al-Qaeda, the militant multinational Sunni Islamist organization, and... More
Latin America exhibited a range of reactions to the combatants in World War II. A number of dictators admired fascism, including Trujillo in the Dominican Republic and Ubico in Guatemala. Other states enjoyed profitable trading relationships with the Axis powers. However, trans-Atlantic trade reduced when war began, as did Pacific... More
Displaced from their traditional homelands, then shunted to progressively smaller and more barren reservations, the provisions of the Dawes Act (1887) were the final wrecking ball for the Indian way of life. Under the pretext of ‘assimilation’, the Indians were now to be assigned individual land allotments, abolishing communal ownership,... More
Xerxes the Great was determined to punish the Greeks for their victory over Persia at Marathon. After several years of planning, Xerxes’ huge army and navy travelled south from Sardis, through Thrace and Macedonia. While the land army was advancing, there were several severe storms that shipwrecked much of the... More
Believed to be the first dynasty in traditional Chinese history, the Xia (Hsia) dynasty is described in ancient chronicles such as the Bamboo Annals, yet some historians question its existence and consider it to be mostly mythological. The exact dates of this dynasty are unclear, but are generally agreed to... More