After French success over Anglo-Dutch forces at the Battle of Beachy Head, and victory at the Battle of Fleurus in 1690, France posed a threat in Europe. In 1701 the War of the Spanish Succession began, the final war undertaken by a European coalition to curb France’s expansion. The Duke... More
In 1763, the Royal Proclamation had forbidden American colonists to settle west of a line running along the watershed of the Appalachian Mountains. The Treaty of Paris (1783) concluding the American Revolutionary War granted the colonies additional territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi: almost 387,000 sq miles (1 million... More
After a mid-19th century influx of miners and migrants into the Great Plains and California, the resident Native American tribes resisted. Having already been pushed into reservations in the 1830 Trail of Tears (the forced movement of certain Native Americans tribes into reservations), their homelands were again under threat. After... More
Breaking with the tradition of internment in the northern pyramid complexes, the rulers of the newly reunified Egypt (18th Dynasty), built a necropolis in western Thebes, close to their dynastic roots. The local god, Amun, was elevated to the status of patron god of Egypt and money poured into building... More
British recognition of American independence by the Treaty of Paris (1783) dissolved the 1763 Line of Proclamation and effectively doubled the territory of the new republic from its original Thirteen Colonies. A further doubling occurred with the Louisiana Purchase from Napoleonic France (1803), which extended the western boundary to the... More
Michael Wittmann, one of the most successful panzer aces in World War II, is best known for his single-handed actions at Villers-Bocage on 13 June 1944, when he ambushed elements of the British 7th Armoured Division. The circumstances of his death nearly three months later, however, were disputed for many... More
In 1990, the US population was estimated at 248,709,873, of whom 31.2 million were 65 years or older. Statistics confirm that in all age groups over 65, women consistently outnumbered men, reflecting their longer life expectancy. Between 65 to 74 years there were 10.2 million women to 7.9 million men.... More
In 1850 women played a significant role in the industrialization process, with many working up to 14 hours a day in manufacturing industries which included woollen and cotton textiles, paper, rubber goods and shoes. Angry female mill workers in Pennsylvania brought about a ten-hour limit on the working day after... More
Utah granted female suffrage in 1870, preceded only by Wyoming (1869). Congress promptly disenfranchised Utah’s women (1887) after they had the temerity to vote for Mormon polygamy. Generally, the Mountain Zone states proved most progressive with Colorado (1893) and Idaho (1896) following their neighbours: the rest of the West would... More
In 1984, Mississippi became the final state of the Union to ratify the 19th Amendment, which declared ‘The right of citizens…to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex’. The Mississippian ratification was academic: to take effect the Amendment... More
The relative strengths and dispositions of naval forces at the outset of World War I favoured an Allied strategy of containment. Outside the European seaboards, the Central Powers had only one significant naval presence, the German East Asia squadron headquartered at Tsingtao in China (it would be destroyed attempting to... More
The Security Council of the United Nations is responsible for the maintenance of global peace and security and in 2009 added Resolution 1904, reaffirming the need to combat by ‘all means’ the threat posed to international peace caused by terrorist acts. In 2009, the Security Council also supported a mandate... More