The phenomenon of piracy in the Caribbean grew out of the practice of buccaneering, whereby the colonial authorities issued ‘letters of marque’ to privateers to raid and loot the ships and ports of whichever rival they were currently fighting. France’s first base in the Caribbean, Tortuga, began as a privateer... More
By 1763, after the Seven Years’ War, Britain had damaged the economic base of the sugar producing colonies in the Spanish and French West Indies. Britain had successfully captured the French and Spanish sugar plantation islands, apart from French Santa Domingo (Saint Dominigue). After the 1763 Paris Treaty, the British... More
By 1830, all that remained of the Spanish territories in the West Indies were Puerto Rico and Cuba. Spain was confronted with rebellious colonies in the early 19th century and tried to pacify Cuba and Puerto Rico by giving them representation in the Spanish parliament in Madrid. This was reversed... More
Slave revolts in Central America and the Caribbean were frequent. In Haiti a major revolt in 1791 continued until the French banned slavery in 1794. Its leader, former slave Toussaint Louverture, became the leader of the new country of Haiti, the first state to arise from a slave rebellion. The... More
After his discovery in 1492 of what he believed to his dying day to be Asia, Columbus completed three further voyages to the Caribbean, establishing the Spanish hub for future ventures at Santo Domingo on Hispaniola, visiting most of the major islands, exploring the coast of Central America and discovering... More
The battle of Rio Salado (1340) fought near Seville in Spain was a crushing defeat for the Marinids, the Moroccan dynasty that supported the kingdom of Granada, by the combined Christian armies of Portugal and Castile. It marked the final Muslim attempt to extend their control in European west beyond... More
After French success over Anglo-Dutch forces at the Battle of Beachy Head, and victory at the Battle of Fleurus in 1690, France posed a threat in Europe. In 1701 the War of the Spanish Succession began, the final war undertaken by a European coalition to curb France’s expansion. The Duke... More
In 1763, the Royal Proclamation had forbidden American colonists to settle west of a line running along the watershed of the Appalachian Mountains. The Treaty of Paris (1783) concluding the American Revolutionary War granted the colonies additional territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi: almost 387,000 sq miles (1 million... More
After a mid-19th century influx of miners and migrants into the Great Plains and California, the resident Native American tribes resisted. Having already been pushed into reservations in the 1830 Trail of Tears (the forced movement of certain Native Americans tribes into reservations), their homelands were again under threat. After... More
Breaking with the tradition of internment in the northern pyramid complexes, the rulers of the newly reunified Egypt (18th Dynasty), built a necropolis in western Thebes, close to their dynastic roots. The local god, Amun, was elevated to the status of patron god of Egypt and money poured into building... More
British recognition of American independence by the Treaty of Paris (1783) dissolved the 1763 Line of Proclamation and effectively doubled the territory of the new republic from its original Thirteen Colonies. A further doubling occurred with the Louisiana Purchase from Napoleonic France (1803), which extended the western boundary to the... More
Michael Wittmann, one of the most successful panzer aces in World War II, is best known for his single-handed actions at Villers-Bocage on 13 June 1944, when he ambushed elements of the British 7th Armoured Division. The circumstances of his death nearly three months later, however, were disputed for many... More