Japan was centralized in c. 794 with different tribes unified under an imperial dynasty, whose capital was Heian (Kyoto). The Heian period, (794–1185) is known as a golden age and is characterized by its elegant and subtle poetry and prose – often written by women, such as Sei Shonagon, an... More
In 1453, the 100 Years’ War was lost: swarms of demobbed soldiers, and underemployed knights flooded back into England. The weakling King Henry VI descended into insanity and paralysis. Rival noble factions, headed by the Houses of York and Lancaster, were daggers drawn over the royal succession. Over the following... More
Following America’s entry into World War II, industrial production needed to increase massively. The government set about coordinating the industrial effort and set up the Liberator Production Pool Programme, which enlisted the services of various manufacturing firms and industries to manufacture bombers. Although it was originally thought that Ford’s assembly... More
The Ohio Company was a land speculation company owned by Virginians, who wanted to create a trading settlement in Ohio, west of Virginia. The company was given a land grant by the British government in 1749 and received investments from Virginian colonists who were interested in the trading opportunities the... More
Napoleon opened the attack at around 11.00 against Wellington’s right flank at Hougoumont, where fighting continued through the afternoon. At 11.50 the Grand Battery open fire (other sources state later times), aiming at the centre of the allied line, inflicting a large number of casualties on the allies. At about... More
The French army of 72,000 arrived on 17 June before the strong defensive positions taken by the allies, commanded by Wellington and numbering 68,000. Napoleon cancelled his attack plan until the following morning, to allow the sodden ground to dry out. The following day, 18 June, Napoleon delayed again, still... More
The indigenous lifestyles of North America were primarily determined by climate. Where temperatures and/or rainfall were low, hunter-gatherers were the norm, elsewhere agriculture featured more prominently. There were, however, numerous exceptions. In the Northwest, the sheer abundance of natural resources underpinned the unparalleled development of a settled, hierarchical society based... More
After his flight from Mecca to Medina in 622, Muhammad began to raid Meccan caravan routes. In 624, he learnt of a particularly large and well-laden caravan heading back from Syria. He gathered his forces for an ambush at Badr, where caravans would stop for refreshment at a string of... More
In 1276, Edward I of England began a campaign against Gwynedd after Llywelyn, prince of Wales, refused to pay homage. Edward’s army marched towards Gwynedd in 1277 and quickly subdued its Welsh vassals as many were unhappy under Llywellyn’s rule. Llywelyn was forced to sign away lands to become English... More
Prior to the 1640s small-scale metal and coal mining were practised in Wales, a mostly rural region. There was a fledgling coal export industry in south Wales and Aberystwyth between the 16th and 17th centuries. This was helped by the English Civil War (1642–49), which boosted local economies. During the... More
The gradual abolition of the slave trade in the early 19th century left both the colonial powers and their procurer African coastal states seeking new commercial outlets. For the colonies, much depended on the energies of individual administrators. George Maclean in the British Gold Coast, and Louis Faidherbe in French... More
The Spanish colonization of the Americas was driven by an implacable pursuit of wealth, in particular gold. Accordingly, they settled only the main islands of the Caribbean, as entreports for the trade with the mineral rich mainland. To man their operations, they enslaved the native American populations, but when these... More