‘A little Wales beyond Wales’ was the brainchild of Michael D. Jones, a Welsh non-conformist preacher in the 1860s. At the time, the expanding coalfields in Wales were sucking the lifeblood out of the traditional, Welsh speaking rural hinterland. Welsh migrants to America felt pressured to anglicize, so the decision... More
Ever since the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Sino-Japanese relations had been uneasy, resulting in several military exchanges, and culminating in a failed attempt by the Japanese on 8 July 1937 to take control of the Lugou or ‘Marco Polo’ Bridge near Beijing. Major battles followed, in which the... More
The shallow waters and indented coastlines of the Adriatic did not lend themselves to major marine engagements. The Allied strategy there was mainly one of confinement, particularly after Italy entered the war on the Allied side; the British and French navies wanted to keep the Central Powers contained there, minimizing... More
1779–1781 marked the southern phase of the Revolutionary War and, with the French now fighting for the Americans, the British commandeered British loyalists. The biggest loyalist concentration was in the South, where the British enlisted runaway slaves, promising them freedom if they fought on their side. This strategy alienated pro-slavery... More
During the reign of the ineffectual Ramesses XI, Egypt was becoming chaotic and fragmented. Amenhotep, the high priest in Thebes and the most powerful man in Upper Egypt, was deposed by his people. Pharaoh Ramesses, petitioned by Amenhotep, had no choice but to restore him to office. Ramesses instructed Viceroy... More
The Seven Years’ War involved nearly all the European powers and was ignited in 1756 when the Prussian ruler, Frederick II, invaded Holy Roman Empire territories (European territories dominated by Austria) in Saxony. Frederick II wanted to protect his borders from a feared Austro-Russian attack, and believed that Saxony would... More
Japan was centralized in c. 794 with different tribes unified under an imperial dynasty, whose capital was Heian (Kyoto). The Heian period, (794–1185) is known as a golden age and is characterized by its elegant and subtle poetry and prose – often written by women, such as Sei Shonagon, an... More
In 1453, the 100 Years’ War was lost: swarms of demobbed soldiers, and underemployed knights flooded back into England. The weakling King Henry VI descended into insanity and paralysis. Rival noble factions, headed by the Houses of York and Lancaster, were daggers drawn over the royal succession. Over the following... More
Following America’s entry into World War II, industrial production needed to increase massively. The government set about coordinating the industrial effort and set up the Liberator Production Pool Programme, which enlisted the services of various manufacturing firms and industries to manufacture bombers. Although it was originally thought that Ford’s assembly... More
The Ohio Company was a land speculation company owned by Virginians, who wanted to create a trading settlement in Ohio, west of Virginia. The company was given a land grant by the British government in 1749 and received investments from Virginian colonists who were interested in the trading opportunities the... More
Napoleon opened the attack at around 11.00 against Wellington’s right flank at Hougoumont, where fighting continued through the afternoon. At 11.50 the Grand Battery open fire (other sources state later times), aiming at the centre of the allied line, inflicting a large number of casualties on the allies. At about... More
The French army of 72,000 arrived on 17 June before the strong defensive positions taken by the allies, commanded by Wellington and numbering 68,000. Napoleon cancelled his attack plan until the following morning, to allow the sodden ground to dry out. The following day, 18 June, Napoleon delayed again, still... More