Enrico Fermi first achieved self-sustaining nuclear fission in Chicago in 1942. In 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was established to oversee research into peaceful applications for the technology. The first experimental breeder reactor went live in Arco, Idaho (1951), with the first commercial plant following at Shippingport, Pennsylvania (1957). The... More
Woodrow Wilson won re-election as US President in 1916 (albeit narrowly) with the slogan ‘He kept us out of the War’. Yet, less than five months later, he passionately advocated the declaration of war on Germany, proclaiming, ‘the world must be made safe for democracy…against selfish and autocratic power’, and... More
After the debacle of the French attempt to build a canal through Panama, informed US opinion tended to favour an alternative route through Nicaragua. However, the irrepressible Teddy Roosevelt favoured Panama, and when he became President in 1901 was ready to steamroller it through. When Colombia (of which Panama was... More
The common factor in US migration patterns in the middle decades of the 20th century was rural depopulation, with over half of the nation’s 3,100 counties registering absolute declines in population. Choice of urban destination was more mixed. The ‘Great Migration’ of African Americans from the southern states resumed in... More
The American post-war planning process turned out a number of differing proposals for the division and management of Germany. Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed splitting Germany and Austria into six separate states and two small international zones, but believed that Germany should experience some form of punishment, whilst the Secretary of... More
By the turn of the 20th century, the American railroad network was largely controlled by a handful of tycoons. High monopolistic rail freight rates had been successfully challenged in the east by the Grange farmers’ movement, but the issue succeeded in capturing presidential attention in 1901, with a battle for... More
From the opening of the first few railroads in the east coast states at the beginning of the 1830s, America’s rail network began its rapid expansion westwards as technology and investment in railroad companies took off. At first the railroads were fiercely opposed by canal corporations, which conducted the bulk... More
The 1840s saw massive expansion of America’s railroad network and by 1850 the total length of railroads was triple that of just ten years earlier. By this point all of America’s eastern states, besides Florida, had stretches of railroad running through them and a number of large cities were supplied... More
The rail network played an important role in the American Civil War, which pitted the southern Confederation against the northern Union states between 1861–65. The Union states of the north held an advantage in the form of a larger and more extensive railroad network, along with the accompanying telegraph communications... More
Following the Civil War the United States government had begun a widespread effort to reconstruct the southern states and bring them more in line economically and socially with the north. This included a major effort to financially invest in the existing railroad network and to provide grants for the construction... More
The 1880s was the decade that saw the greatest total railroad mileage constructed in American history, however the majority of this expansion occurred outside the eastern states, which had previously been the railroad heartland. The prosperous economic climate of the 1880s provided the funding and incentives for railroad development into... More
Between 1890–1900 the rate of new railroad construction had dropped significantly from the peak of the early 1880s. The trend of network growth into the western states continued as their coverage began to catch up with the states of the east coast. The introduction of two major safety innovations, the... More