The First Opium War, triggered by the British government’s imposition of an opium trade upon Qing China, was concluded in 1842 by the Treaty of Nanjing, under which the Chinese ceded to the British Empire the island of Hong Kong and the five treaty ports at Shanghai, Canton (Guangzhou), Ningpo... More
Two days after the cessation of the Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo, the Italians launched an attack on the Austro-Hungarian positions in Trentino, captured in the offensive of the previous summer. Cadorna, the Italian Chief of Staff, was aware they might be used to attack his Isonzo forces from the... More
The Roman city of Augusta Treverorum, now the German city of Trier, traces its origins back to the Celtic-Germanic Treveri tribe. It became an important regional hub of the Roman Empire following the construction of a military road between Cologne and Lyon in 39 BCE. Its location on the River... More
In 1867, the Austrian Empire enacted a reform known as the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. This established separate parliaments and administrative operations for the historic kingdom of Hungary and the Austrian Empire, whilst both remained unified under a single head of state as Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary.... More
Austria-Hungary collapsed into numerous separate states after its defeat in World War I. Much of the area formerly known as the Austrian Littoral was annexed to Italy in 1920 following negotiations under the Treaty of Rapallo, and renamed the Julian March. As a result, many Slavs, Germans and Hungarians who... More
The term ‘Manifest destiny’ was coined on the occasion of the annexation of Texas (1845). While never official policy, President Polk certainly scented the opportunity to expand from Texas to the Pacific, at the expense of a newly independent Mexican state enfeebled by Comanche and Apache wars. The pretext was... More
Louis XIV’s expansionist attacks on the Netherlands provoked hostility from other European states, and the armies of Austria and Brandenburg under Friedrich-Wilhelm, Elector of Brandenburg, posed a threat in the upper Rhine. In 1674, therefore, Vicomte de Turenne was tasked with preventing invasion in Alsace. His first campaign saw success... More
The commander-in-chief of the British army in America was Sir William Howe. His New York campaign of 1776-77 was distinguished by an unerring capacity to miss the rebel jugular. Firstly, having outflanked and encircled Washington’s army at Brooklyn Heights on Long Island, he declined to attack (and probably finish the... More
The German Zeppelin L9 was returning to its base on 14 April 1914, when it was instructed to raid Tyneside. At 19.00 it reached Tynemouth, travelled northwards and dropped its first bombs around Blyth, disgorging a total of 22 bombs. It turned southwards where it dropped eight bombs on a... More
The U-boats, German submarines, threatened Allied ships mainly around the British Isles, the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean. Most of their submarines were in Belgium and German bases, from which they targeted North Sea and Atlantic shipping. There was also a large base in Pola. At first, they torpedoed war... More
Throughout World War I, the people of the Ukrainian territories were split between the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia allowed nationalism in the Ukraine to flourish and Socialist movements established a number of short-lived states. The Ukrainian People’s Republic and the West Ukrainian People’s Republic were... More
The area of modern day Ukraine has always been home to Russian speaking migrants. Throughout the years of Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union there were a number of notable periods during which the Ukrainian language was actively discriminated against as part of an effort to promote the propagation of... More