A milestone discovered at Tintagel in Cornwall refers to the Emperor Licinius (r. 308–324) suggesting that it was occupied during the Roman era; there are also traces of earlier Bronze Age/Iron Age habitation. Archaeological remains from the 5th and 6th centuries, including pottery sourced from the Mediterranean, suggest a high-status... More
By 1918, the Selective Service Act, the conscription of young men into the US army, meant that the relatively small standing army swelled to 4,000,000. General Pershing, the commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), insisted troops receive full combat training before arriving in France, so their direct impact on... More
The battle of Tours saw Charles Martel’s Frankish army confront the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, the Andalusian Muslims. The Umayyad army had made easy progress from Spain through southern Gaul, defeating Duke Odo’s forces in Bordeaux. Al Ghafiqi did not anticipate heavy resistance as... More
By c. 1750, immigration, high birth rates and abundant natural resources had turned the thirteen colonies into a major consumer and exporter of goods. Most of colonial America’s exports were agricultural, with the Carolinas, Georgia and Virginia exporting raw and processed feed grains, including wheat, Indian corn, rice and tobacco.... More
Transport within the Roman Empire was based on roads, navigable rivers and sea routes and focused on the Mediterranean basin, drawing on the resources of North Africa, Spain, France and the Middle East to feed and supply the fast-growing capital, whose population reached 1 million people at the peak of... More
With the Americas yet to figure on the international stage, the Ottoman Empire sat at the hub of world trade at the time of Columbus. The central Asian Silk Road, Indian Ocean spice route, the river routes from the Baltic to Black Sea and trans-Saharan routes all converged on their... More
In c. 1200, major trade routes ran from Europe across Asia, and to northern Africa – including Tunis, Tripoli and the Nile Delta – into sub-Saharan East and West Africa. The Black and Caspian Seas were important trade centres, acting as hubs for trading routes to and from Africa, Asia... More
Following its foundation in the 7th century, Islam acted as a cohesive force between areas where it was established as the main religion. It facilitated trade between the lands of Christianity in west and the empires of the Far East via a number of important land and maritime trade routes.... More
Andrew Henry and William Ashley were partners in a gunpowder manufacturing business, who in 1822 advertised for ‘one hundred enterprising young men’ to discover the source of the Missouri River. Their joint expedition tracked the Missouri, establishing Fort Henry en route; on the return journey, an Arikara Indian ambush claimed... More
A filigree of well-traversed Native American trading routes covered western North America on the eve of European arrival. These were the arteries of a barter economy underpinned by certain staple forms of exchange. Transition zones between primarily agricultural and hunting populations would feature the trade of crops for meat. Rare... More
An iconic image of the 18th Dynasty is in Deir el-Bahri temple where a tableau depicts the trading expedition of the female pharaoh, Hatshepsut, to Punt. In Ancient Egypt, the waxing of power invariably fuelled a limitless appetite for the resources to sustain that power and the exotic materials required... More
When Europeans first arrived, America’s indigenous population were either nomadic or subsistence hunters, managing, rather than supplanting, the native vegetation. During the 18th century, the colonization of the eastern seaboard saw natural forest cover replaced with plantation monocultures to the south, mixed arable farming to the north. During the 19th... More