With the Soviet armies advancing from the east and driving out the German occupiers, the Polish nationalists seized their chance to liberate Warsaw. Operation Tempest, the largest single resistance action of World War II, began on 1 August with the Poles quickly taking control of much of the city centre... More
The Weimar Republic has become synonymous with weak government, but, in truth it was dealt a near impossible hand. As the administration was being established Communist rebels were fighting for control in Berlin and Munich. It was also unceasingly attacked by conservative purveyors of the ‘stab-in-the back’ myth, accusing its... More
Both Syria and Jordan had been tentative about entering the Six-Day War, but were deceived by Egypt’s President Nasser, who claimed the Israelis were being routed. Israeli forces on the Jordanian border were intended to adopt a defensive position, while the offensive proceeded in Sinai. But the Jordan-held West Bank... More
Despite the number of Allied offensives and German counterattacks, no significant advances were made on the western front in 1915. The relentless artillery barrages, entrenchments and barred wire meant that both sides ended up deadlocked. The Germans launched one major offensive at Ypres, April 1915, where they introduced chlorine gas... More
Following the swift German advance into eastern France through Belgium and Luxembourg in August 1914 under the Schlieffen plan, progress quickly slowed as both sides suffered unexpectedly heavy casualties. A series of offensives and counteroffensives yielding minimal ground forced a race to the sea as both sides attempted to outflank... More
The Armistice of 11 November 1918 was, understandably, a stop-gap solution directed towards achieving an instant cessation of hostilities, rather than reflecting faithfully events on the ground. That considered reflection would emerge from the Treaty of Versailles, concluded on 28 June 1919. The Armistice formally renounced the Treaties of Brest–Litovsk... More
The Battle of Lepanto (1571) was hailed a historic victory for Christendom against the ‘infidel’ Turks. The fleet of the Holy League (Papal States, Spain, Venice) annihilated their Ottoman enemy, sinking or capturing almost 200 ships. The admiral that day, Don John of Austria, went on to recapture Tunis (1573).... More
US naval capabilities continued to strengthen throughout the course of World War II, outstripping those of the Japanese Imperial Navy, which was defeated in a number of key naval battles. The shift towards strategic and tactical operations based increasingly around aircraft carriers allowed the US Navy to engage in long... More
The Avignon papacy (1305–77) was a period, initiated by Pope Clement V, when the papal capital moved to Avignon in southern France. The seven Avignon popes were all French, as were most of the cardinals. The Avignon papacy gained a reputation for corruption and subordination to the French monarchy. The... More
The powerful Wettin dynasty had been active warriors, instrumental in pushing Germany frontiers east into Slavic lands in the 11th century. When six-year old Henry the Illustrious succeeded as Margrave in 1221, he commanded extensive lands, including the March of Meissen. As a reward for supporting the Hohenstaufen Holy Roman... More
The Wilderness was a tangled thicket in northern Virginia. As Ulysses S. Grant’s Union army moved towards the Confederate capital, Richmond, Confederate Commander Robert E. Lee decided to confront them in the Wilderness, where the dense scrub would negate Grant’s huge advantage in manpower and artillery. After crossing the Rapidan... More
William of Orange had achieved a bloodless ‘Glorious Revolution’ in England, when James II fled to France upon William’s landing at Brixham in Devon. However, James saw Catholic Ireland as a route to regaining his throne, and William pursued him there. After landing in Kinsale with 6,000 French troops courtesy... More