In the Upper Carboniferous, the fusion of Laurentia with Gondwanaland forced up ranges of mountains through the Appalachian–Hercynian orogeny (a mountain-building process). Of the resulting landmass, only the land that is now North America sat astride the equator, with Angaraland, containing present day Siberia/Kazakhstan a large island to the north.... More
The Upper Devonian had significantly higher sea levels than today, with most of the Earth’s surface covered by the vast Panthalassa Ocean. Proto Europe and North America existed as islands skirting the continent of Laurentia, which had collided with Baltica in the Lower Devonian. The main landmass, Gondwanaland, lay to... More
Future Presidents Kennedy and Johnson opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1957, but the findings of the Commission created by that Act graphically anatomized the pervasiveness of discrimination in American society, and the perniciousness of its effects, promoting a sea-change in public opinion. When Kennedy was assassinated, his successor, President... More
The US Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment on 22 March 1972 (‘Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex’). There was a seven-year deadline on the ratification process, with approval of three-fourths (38)... More
In the late 18th century, Barbary pirates terrorized Mediterranean shipping from their bases in Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Morocco. The local rulers both abetted, and profited from, their activities. The pirates demanded large ransoms for ships and crew they captured, then tribute from the affected governments to avoid further attacks.... More
The Vatican City is a sovereign state and the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church. Founded in 1929, following the signing of the Lateran Pacts in an agreement made between the Holy See and Italian prime minister, Benito Mussolini, it covers 110 acres and is the smallest nation state in... More
The death of Edward the Confessor ignited a battle of succession for the English throne. While Harold Godwinson had been elected king by the assembly of nobles, his younger brother Tostig had enlisted Harald Hardrada, king of Norway, to support his counterclaim. Sailing up the River Ouse, the Norse invaders... More
Vikings from Sweden first established a settlement at Aldeigjuborg on Lake Ladoga in the late 8th century. The legendary ruler Rurik reputedly founded Novgorod in around 860. The location was a natural trading nexus bestriding the headwaters of the Dvina, Dneister and Volga Rivers flowing respectively to the Baltic, Black... More
The Danish Viking army of Ivar the Boneless first took York in 866, but occupation was at first intermittent. After the victory of Alfred the Great over the Viking leader Guthrum in 878, the division of England became more formalized; the Danelaw, the territory where the Vikings held sway, ran... More
In 1953, the new Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, began the Virgin Lands campaign to cultivate the steppe lands, mainly in northern Kazakhstan, for grain production. This area was chosen because it had higher rainfall and better soil than neighbouring regions, as well as a low population. The campaign was successful... More
After the Western Roman Empire fell at the beginning of the 5th century, a period of fluctuating migration and warring between tribes in the former Roman lands began. The Vandals, who originated in Scandinavia, were pushed into North Africa by an alliance of Romans and Visigoths after a reign of... More
The 1896 presidential election ended in the Republican victory of William McKinley against Democrat, William Jennings Bryan. McKinley was the first American president to use modern campaign techniques, spending $3.5 million on his bid for the presidency, five times the Bryan campaign sum. The central issue was whether to take... More