Between 1889 and 1893, a series of ‘land runs’ resulted from opening up former Indian reservation land in western Oklahoma to settlers. In 1890, the US Census Bureau formally declared the American Frontier closed, based on the spread of settlement throughout the West. A cluster of state admissions reflected the... More
The Mexican Revolution (1910–20) produced protracted upheaval along the American border. Streams of refugees fled the fighting, and rebels used the American Southwest desert as their bolthole. The instability helped to prompt admission of Arizona and New Mexico to the Union (1912). Their incorporation did not prevent a series of... More
In 1959, the US admitted their two most recent (to date) and only non-contiguous states, Alaska and Hawaii. The Alaskan territory had originally been acquired by purchase from Russia in 1867, while Hawaii became a US territory in 1899 after US businessmen on the islands fomented a coup against the... More
In virtually all the factors necessary to prosecute a war successfully, the Union outmatched the Confederacy. Their population was 21 million compared to 9 million in the South, of which 3.5 million were slaves. Their industrial capacity was eight times greater, producing 93 per cent of the country’s pig iron,... More
In the Upper Carboniferous, the fusion of Laurentia with Gondwanaland forced up ranges of mountains through the Appalachian–Hercynian orogeny (a mountain-building process). Of the resulting landmass, only the land that is now North America sat astride the equator, with Angaraland, containing present day Siberia/Kazakhstan a large island to the north.... More
The Upper Devonian had significantly higher sea levels than today, with most of the Earth’s surface covered by the vast Panthalassa Ocean. Proto Europe and North America existed as islands skirting the continent of Laurentia, which had collided with Baltica in the Lower Devonian. The main landmass, Gondwanaland, lay to... More
Future Presidents Kennedy and Johnson opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1957, but the findings of the Commission created by that Act graphically anatomized the pervasiveness of discrimination in American society, and the perniciousness of its effects, promoting a sea-change in public opinion. When Kennedy was assassinated, his successor, President... More
The US Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment on 22 March 1972 (‘Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex’). There was a seven-year deadline on the ratification process, with approval of three-fourths (38)... More
In the late 18th century, Barbary pirates terrorized Mediterranean shipping from their bases in Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Morocco. The local rulers both abetted, and profited from, their activities. The pirates demanded large ransoms for ships and crew they captured, then tribute from the affected governments to avoid further attacks.... More
The Vatican City is a sovereign state and the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church. Founded in 1929, following the signing of the Lateran Pacts in an agreement made between the Holy See and Italian prime minister, Benito Mussolini, it covers 110 acres and is the smallest nation state in... More
The death of Edward the Confessor ignited a battle of succession for the English throne. While Harold Godwinson had been elected king by the assembly of nobles, his younger brother Tostig had enlisted Harald Hardrada, king of Norway, to support his counterclaim. Sailing up the River Ouse, the Norse invaders... More
Vikings from Sweden first established a settlement at Aldeigjuborg on Lake Ladoga in the late 8th century. The legendary ruler Rurik reputedly founded Novgorod in around 860. The location was a natural trading nexus bestriding the headwaters of the Dvina, Dneister and Volga Rivers flowing respectively to the Baltic, Black... More