The libertarian French aristocrat Alexis de Tocqueville arrived in America in 1831 with his friend Gustave de Beaumont, ostensibly to complete a review of the US penal system, but the trip soon metamorphosed into a grand tour, ranging from Quebec to New Orleans. This odyssey would fuel Democracy in America,... More
Hadrian’s extensive travels were to review the administration of his vast empire and to consolidate his imperial authority. Between 122–125, after strengthening the Upper Rhine/Upper Danube area, Emperor Hadrian and his legions visited Britannia, where he constructed Hadrian’s Wall. The fortified wall marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire.... More
Saul of Tarsus, born in Asia Minor, was both a Jew and a Roman citizen, who was brought up as a Pharisee. He responded to the emergence of the Jesus movement by becoming an enforcer of pharisaic orthodoxy, travelling from synagogue to synagogue, preaching the persecution of Jews who believed... More
Saul of Tarsus, a Pharisee who preached the persecution of Jews who believed Jesus to be a Messiah, converted to Christianity in c. 36 BCE. He travelled widely to preach the Christian message, and his later journeys took him to the Levant, Anatolia and Greece and as far afield as... More
The martial King Charles X was appointed commander of Swedish forces in the Thirty Years’ War, just months before the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) was agreed, snuffing out his hopes of glory. He ascended the Swedish throne in 1654, impatient for conquest, and soon declared war on the Polish/Lithuanian commonwealth,... More
From the late 14th century, the city states of northern Italy were engaged in near continuous warfare triggered by the expansionism of the Visconti dynasty in Milan. Pitted against Milan was Florence, but, as the conflict evolved, Venice exploited the disruption by systematically extending its territories westward, initially as the... More
The Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris in 1783 by America and Britain, recognized American independence. The terms, superficially, seemed generous: land granted to the west of the pre-existing colonies more than doubled the size of the nascent state. But Britain had a sound commercial interest in maintaining constructive relations,... More
The negotiations for the peace of Westphalia lasted almost six years, and produced several separate treaties resolving both the Thirty Years’ War (involving France, the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden and various other combatants) and the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Netherlands. The main treaties were signed at Munster... More
The Trentino offensive was a major action, the Austro-Hungarian High Command assembling 18 divisions for the task, aiming to strike directly at the Italian heartland via the Asiago plateau, thereby isolating the Italian armies around Isonzo. Although pre-warned of the military build-up, the local Italian commander, General Brusati, was insufficiently... More
Almost all the earth’s landmass was conjoined in a vast C-shaped continent astride the Equator: Pangea. Surrounding it was Panthalassa, a vast ocean twice the breadth of the modern Pacific from which protruded the Tethys Ocean, a huge gulf forming the mouth of Pangea’s ‘C’. Much of present South and... More
By 1900, there was mounting pressure in Ireland for repeal of the 1801 Act of Union. The Irish Nationalist Party (INP), led by John Redmond, championed the ‘Home Rule’ movement. Two previous Home Rule Bills (1886, 1893) had been blocked by the House of Lords. However, the 1910 election resulted... More
The first of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad was the Rashidun (632–61), which was characterized by a period of rapid military expansion in the Middle East and North Africa, followed by a five-year period of civil war between the Caliph Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, and Muawiyah,... More