The martial King Charles X was appointed commander of Swedish forces in the Thirty Years’ War, just months before the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) was agreed, snuffing out his hopes of glory. He ascended the Swedish throne in 1654, impatient for conquest, and soon declared war on the Polish/Lithuanian commonwealth,... More
From the late 14th century, the city states of northern Italy were engaged in near continuous warfare triggered by the expansionism of the Visconti dynasty in Milan. Pitted against Milan was Florence, but, as the conflict evolved, Venice exploited the disruption by systematically extending its territories westward, initially as the... More
The Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris in 1783 by America and Britain, recognized American independence. The terms, superficially, seemed generous: land granted to the west of the pre-existing colonies more than doubled the size of the nascent state. But Britain had a sound commercial interest in maintaining constructive relations,... More
The negotiations for the peace of Westphalia lasted almost six years, and produced several separate treaties resolving both the Thirty Years’ War (involving France, the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden and various other combatants) and the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Netherlands. The main treaties were signed at Munster... More
The Trentino offensive was a major action, the Austro-Hungarian High Command assembling 18 divisions for the task, aiming to strike directly at the Italian heartland via the Asiago plateau, thereby isolating the Italian armies around Isonzo. Although pre-warned of the military build-up, the local Italian commander, General Brusati, was insufficiently... More
Almost all the earth’s landmass was conjoined in a vast C-shaped continent astride the Equator: Pangea. Surrounding it was Panthalassa, a vast ocean twice the breadth of the modern Pacific from which protruded the Tethys Ocean, a huge gulf forming the mouth of Pangea’s ‘C’. Much of present South and... More
By 1900, there was mounting pressure in Ireland for repeal of the 1801 Act of Union. The Irish Nationalist Party (INP), led by John Redmond, championed the ‘Home Rule’ movement. Two previous Home Rule Bills (1886, 1893) had been blocked by the House of Lords. However, the 1910 election resulted... More
The first of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad was the Rashidun (632–61), which was characterized by a period of rapid military expansion in the Middle East and North Africa, followed by a five-year period of civil war between the Caliph Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, and Muawiyah,... More
The underground railroad is a figurative term used to refer to the escape route of African-American runaway slaves to the free North, Canada, Mexico and overseas between 1790 and 1865. The network of secret routes and safe houses, known as stopping stations, criss-crossed much of the US. The fugitives, identified... More
On 18 January 1871, following decades of political turmoil and conflict, the states that comprised Germany were finally united under the leadership of Prussia, marking a significant milestone in the country's history. The unification process was primarily driven by Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, who utilised military force... More
The independent Republic of Vermont (1777–91) issued its own coinage and currency, and engaged in diplomatic relations with the Dutch, French and British before becoming the 14th state of the Union. The independent 'State of Frankland' was briefly declared in the western Carolinas in the 1780s before being suppressed: the... More
In the aftermath of independence, the westward expansion of the Union had yet to accrue the inevitability which marked the era of “manifest destiny”. Despite the massive territorial windfall of the Treaty of Paris, the new Republic remained hemmed in by hostile imperial powers, Spain and Britain, and the process... More