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The Third Crusade 1189–92
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The Third Crusade 1189–92
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The Third Crusade was Christian Europe’s response to Saladin’s re-conquest of Jerusalem. First to take up the cause was Frederick Barbarossa, the veteran Holy Roman Emperor who set off overland with a huge army. Richard I of England, and Philip II of France rendezvoused in Sicily, before sailing separately for... More
The Thirty Years’ War 1618–29
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The Thirty Years’ War 1618–29
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The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II provoked this terrible conflict in Central Europe by attempting, as King of Bohemia, to impose Catholicism within his dominions, triggering the ‘defenestration of Prague’ (1618), when his representatives were thrown out of the windows of Prague Castle. His outraged subjects offered his crown to... More
The Thirty Years’ War 1630–39
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The Thirty Years’ War 1630–39
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The eminence grise of the Protestant cause was, ironically, a Catholic cardinal: Richelieu of France, determined to frustrate the Habsburgs. He had bankrolled Denmark’s disastrous intervention; in 1630, he backed a winner in Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II had sacked his most successful military leader,... More
The Thirty Years’ War 1640–48
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The Thirty Years’ War 1640–48
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The siege of Arras (1640) was a turning point in the prolonged conflict; after capturing Arras, the French surged into Flanders, routing the Spanish at Rocroi (1643) and in the Netherlands, (Gent, Hulst, Dunkirk). The tide turned for the French in Germany, with defeats at Tutlingen and Herbsthausen. However, their... More
The Tibetan Empire 650–850
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The Tibetan Empire 650–850
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Around 620 CE, the clans around Lhasa unified, then annexed, the ancient neighbouring kingdom of Zhangzung. The empire they founded expanded northward at the expense of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, occupying the Tarim Basin, before losing most of its gains under the irresolute rule of Emperor ‘Old Hairy’ Tride Tsuktsän.... More
The Ties of Trade c. 1300
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The Ties of Trade c. 1300
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By the 1300s the European merchant class were no longer pedlars who hawked goods from town to town but were dealers, ship owners and guild members. The guilds enabled merchants to create trading posts and apply pressure for special trading privileges. Some guilds were so powerful they had their own... More
The Toltec State 900–1200
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The Toltec State 900–1200
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The extent to which the Toltecs had dominion over an empire is a matter of dispute. An early ruler, Topiltzin, is reputed to have conquered Yucatan and, certainly the site of Chichen Itza on the peninsula has a strong cultural affinity to definite Toltec sites, like their capital, Tula. Their... More
The Trail of Tears 1838–39
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The Trail of Tears 1838–39
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With the passage of the Indian Removal Act (1830), President Andrew Jackson was furnished with a legislative mechanism for the exchange of Indian land on a voluntary basis. It did not allow forced relocation. Jackson’s immediate targets were the ‘Five Civilized tribes’ (Choctaw, Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw and Seminole). He sought... More
The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade 900–1500
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The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade 900–1500
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Both Muslims and Christians engaged in the slave trade in the Middle Ages, with the only general prohibition being enslavement or trading of co-religionists. The Muslim kingdoms of North Africa dominated trans-Saharan trade was dominated, using as their intermediaries the various African empires that grew to occupy the western and... More
The Travels of Emperor Hadrian 121–132 CE
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The Travels of Emperor Hadrian 121–132 CE
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Hadrian’s extensive travels were to review the administration of his vast empire and to consolidate his imperial authority. Between 122–125, after strengthening the Upper Rhine/Upper Danube area, Emperor Hadrian and his legions visited Britannia, where he constructed Hadrian’s Wall. The fortified wall marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire.... More
The Travels of St Paul 46-51 CE
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The Travels of St Paul 46-51 CE
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Saul of Tarsus, born in Asia Minor, was both a Jew and a Roman citizen, who was brought up as a Pharisee. He responded to the emergence of the Jesus movement by becoming an enforcer of pharisaic orthodoxy, travelling from synagogue to synagogue, preaching the persecution of Jews who believed... More
The Travels of St Paul 54–62 CE
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The Travels of St Paul 54–62 CE
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Saul of Tarsus, a Pharisee who preached the persecution of Jews who believed Jesus to be a Messiah, converted to Christianity in c. 36 BCE. He travelled widely to preach the Christian message, and his later journeys took him to the Levant, Anatolia and Greece and as far afield as... More