The State of Gran Colombia was proclaimed at the Congress of Angostura in 1819 and Símon Bolívar, "The Liberator", was made its President. The ensuing Congress of Cucuta in 1821 promulgated the new state’s constitution. Ten years later, Gran Colombia was dissolved due to the political differences that divided the... More
Establishing a navigable passage from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea was an ancient obsession. Attempts to build a linking canal are believed to date back to Pharaoh Senusret I, almost 4,000 years ago. The Persian ruler Darius I is reputed to have succeeded in opening an east-west canal linking... More
The first dynasty to rule what became the Sultanate of Delhi was the Mamluk Dynasty also known as the Slave or Ghulam Dynasty (the word ‘mamluk’ means ‘owned’ and the Mamluks became a powerful military caste in several Muslim societies). In 1206, following the assassination of the childless Sultan of... More
In 1316, following the death of Alauddin Khalji, the second ruler of the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate, he was succeeded by his son Shihabuddin with his brother Qutb ud-Din Mubarak as Regent. However, this position was politically unsafe, and Mubarak decided to blind his brother and seized... More
The 37-year rule of Feroz Shah Tughlaq ended in 1388, following a period of disunity and revolt in the last years of his reign. The first civil war began in 1384, weakening the empire as provinces and territories became independent. A second civil war erupted in 1394, six years after... More
The defence sector provided a massive fillip to the economy of the Sun Belt states during World War II, sustained subsequently by continued high military spending during the cold war. Defence spawned a host of ancillary industries, attracted by the availability of relatively cheap, skilled and non-unionized labour. Electronics, chemicals... More
By 1869, four separate surveys were being conducted in the American West by an eclectic selection of leaders. Clarence King, commissioned to map around the 40th parallel, was a civilian geologist, while George Wheeler was an army engineer. Also active were John Wesley Powell, an autodidact Professor of Geology, and... More
In the Middle Ages the Alpine valleys if Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, the “Forest Cantons” were populated by large numbers of free peasants who, far away from secular or ecclesiastical overlords, developed into relatively independent communities, electing their own leaders. Fiercely loyal to each other, they became wealthy through forest... More
The T’ang Dynasty engaged in a highly successful campaign of territorial expansion during its early years. Its influence stretched far to the west, well into Central Asia. Its main rival in this area was the Tibetan Empire, with which it often held an uneasy alliance. Right at the furthest reaches... More
The Taiping Rebellion began in Guangxi province in 1850 with the uprising of a Christian sect, known as the God Worshipping Society, after they clashed with local imperial officials. Their leader, Hong Xiuquan, claimed to be the brother of Jesus after experiencing visions in 1837. Hong’s fanatical and somewhat authoritarian... More
Before the German 17th Army could proceed with its authorized retreat from the Taman Peninsula, the Soviet North Caucasus Front launched a surprise attack on the heavily embedded German defences. The offensive began on 9 September with a small deployment of troops from the Black Sea who landed in Novorossiysk.... More
The Knights Templar were founded early in the 12th century to protect Christians on pilgrimages to Jerusalem from Muslim attacks. The Templars were renowned for their military prowess, which they transformed into a lucrative security franchise, guarding not only the persons of crusaders in transit but their domestic assets when... More