Postwar Germany overwhelmingly ascribed their ultimate defeat to the failure of Field Marshal von Moltke to adhere to the Schlieffen Plan. This plan, prepared in 1905, dictated a lightning strike with overwhelming force on the western front, rapidly capturing Paris and neutralizing France, thence enabling German forces to concentrate on... More
The medieval Scottish Church held a unique position within the Catholic Church. While it was not awarded an archbishopric (Ireland had four), its ten bishoprics were conferred the status of ‘special daughters of Rome’ by the Bull Cum Universi (1192) of Pope Celestine III. This insulated the Scottish Church from... More
Despite its uncompromising reputation, the Presbyterian Reformation in Scotland was implemented with far more tolerance than was displayed south of the border. Monasteries were not abruptly dissolved with their assets seized for the royal coffers, but simply allowed to die out with their residents. Similarly, the process of conversion of... More
The ‘Sea Peoples’ are known only from references in contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records. Their identity and place of origin, while much speculated upon, remains unknown. Hypotheses have proposed that they were Anatolian, Minoan or Philistines. The fact that they were allied to the Libyans in some of their attacks... More
Before the Civil War the predecessor route to the Seaboard Air Line shipped plantation cotton and tobacco to the port of Portsmouth. After the Stock Market Crash of 1873, the Seaboard’s proprietor, John M. Robinson acquired two further inland routes from Raleigh. Robinson’s successors, the Williams family, extended the network... More
The seven most southerly US states had declared secession by the end of January, 1861; they would be joined by their immediate neighbours to the north, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas, in the wake of the first hostilities at Fort Sumter. Within each state, support for secession was often... More
The Second Crusade was triggered by the fall of Edessa to the Muslim warlord Zengi. It had a promising start when it was led for the first time by European kings. Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, along with fellow nobility, commanded contingents from across Christian Europe.... More
The Second Macedonian War in 202 BCE was between Macedonia and Rome. Philip V of Macedonia began laying siege to the Greek city-states in the Aegean, having formed an alliance with Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire. Both Philip V and Antiochus III were keen to expand their empires and... More
The reformed tradition began in 1519 in Zürich under Huldrych Zwingli. He led a group of Swiss theologians who joined Luther in teaching salvation by faith and the exclusive authority of Scripture, advocating purification of the Church and Christian life, and rejecting Christ’s bodily presence in the Eucharist, which led... More
Forced out of Belgrade by the Austro-Hungarians on 2 December 1914, the Serbian army retreated to their front line. From there, having received fresh supplies of badly needed artillery ammunition, the Serbians launched a counteroffensive on December 3. The Serbians seized the opportunity to counterattack the isolated 6th Army. The... More
Madagascar’s earliest inhabitants are thought to have been the Malayo-Indonesian people who crossed the Indian Ocean from Southeast Asia, c. 1,300 years ago. They brought subsistence crops such as spices, rice, bananas, coconuts and mung beans, some of which they also introduced to coastal eastern Africa. Arab traders arrived on... More
The pugnacious Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia from the Austrian-led Holy Roman Empire in the War of Austrian Succession (1740–48). The determination of Austria to regain Silesia, coupled with Britain’s determination to safeguard the Hanoverian homeland of their monarchy, led to the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, and the... More