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The Roman Empire, Losses to 450
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The Roman Empire, Losses to 450
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After reaching its maximum extent under Trajan, the Roman Empire began a gradual decline from 117 CE onwards. Lowland Scotland between Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall was abandoned as a permanent area of settlement around 185 CE because the resources needed to defend the area outweighed the benefits. Similarly,... More
The Roman Frontier with Germania 70 CE
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The Roman Frontier with Germania 70 CE
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The Rhine and Upper Danube were the natural frontiers that secured the borders of Rome’s dominion. These natural barriers were transformed into a fortified border that marked the edge of Empire and hence the civilized world. These rivers protected the Roman world with the exception of a gap stretching from... More
The Roman Legion 200 BCE
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The Roman Legion 200 BCE
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By 200 BCE, the Romans based their armies around the maniple (‘handful’) of c. 160 men, typically arrayed in the quincunx checkerboard formation; this supplied the flexibility to outmanoeuvre enemies arrayed in a massed phalanx, or respond to more mobile cavalry attack. In battle, the Romans usually placed patrician cavalry... More
The Route of the Exodus
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The Route of the Exodus
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The story of Exodus contains some of the most vivid biblical set-pieces, from the ten plagues unleashed upon the Egyptians, through the inundation of Pharaoh’s army by the ‘Reed’ Sea to the delivery by Moses of the Ten Commandments on Mt Sinai. Taking precise biblical chronology literally, it would have... More
The Route of the Titanic, April 1912
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The Route of the Titanic, April 1912
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The White Star Line commissioned three very large Olympic class ocean liners in 1907 to be built by Harland and Wolff of Belfast, Ireland. Of the three ships, Olympic, Titanic and Britannic the Titanic was the second ship of the class, ordered in 1908 and completed on 2 April 1912.... More
The Russian Civil War March 1918–March 1921
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The Russian Civil War March 1918–March 1921
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After taking control of Petrograd in the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks promptly demobilized the Russian army. Now effectively defenceless, Russia was forced to accept a ruinous treaty at Brest-Litovsk in March, 1918, ceding vast areas of territory to the Central Powers. They were soon embroiled in a complex civil war.... More
The Russian War 1853–56
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The Russian War 1853–56
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The Crimean War represented the breaking point in tensions that had been building across Europe for some time. As part of the Holy Alliance with Prussia and Austria, Russia had assisted Austria in putting down the Hungarian revolution and was intent on engaging the Ottoman Empire without interference. Britain’s interests... More
The Russo-Polish War February 1919–March 1920
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The Russo-Polish War February 1919–March 1920
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In the chaos that engulfed eastern Europe in the wake of the abrupt end of World War I, the conflict between newly re-established Poland and newly Soviet Russia happened almost by accident. The Soviets were preoccupied with their own civil war but, in early 1919, sent forces to suppress rebellions... More
The Saipan Landings 15 June – 9 July 1944
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The Saipan Landings 15 June – 9 July 1944
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The Allied force left Pearl Harbour on 5 June 1944, and ten days later American marines were storming the beaches of Saipan Island, with the aim of securing a base in the Pacific from which the US could attack the Japanese mainland. Under heavy gunfire, and sustaining heavy losses, 20,000... More
The Salerno Landings: Operation Avalanche, 9 September 1943
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The Salerno Landings: Operation Avalanche, 9 September 1943
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Diversionary landings to the south failed to lure significant numbers of German troops away from the west coast neat Salerno in Campania, southern Italy. Additionally, the Allies commenced the attack, on 9 September, without prior naval artillery bombardment, hoping to maintain the element of surprise. The main German defensive groupings... More
The Sassanian Empire c. 550–637 CE
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The Sassanian Empire c. 550–637 CE
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The Sassanian Empire enjoyed a newfound level of prosperity under the reforms of Khosrau I. It was engaged in frequent conflict with the Byzantine Empire on its western border, with sporadic raids by the White Huns in the north. The Byzantine Emperor Maurice, who had aided the new Sassanian Emperor... More
The Schleswig–Holstein Question 1864
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The Schleswig–Holstein Question 1864
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The duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were located between Denmark and Prussia and had, for much of their history, been dynastically interlinked, and within the gift of the Danish Crown. However, the rules of succession in Schleswig prescribed only male heirs could inherit. When the childless Frederick VII became king... More