The story of Exodus contains some of the most vivid biblical set-pieces, from the ten plagues unleashed upon the Egyptians, through the inundation of Pharaoh’s army by the ‘Reed’ Sea to the delivery by Moses of the Ten Commandments on Mt Sinai. Taking precise biblical chronology literally, it would have... More
The White Star Line commissioned three very large Olympic class ocean liners in 1907 to be built by Harland and Wolff of Belfast, Ireland. Of the three ships, Olympic, Titanic and Britannic the Titanic was the second ship of the class, ordered in 1908 and completed on 2 April 1912.... More
After taking control of Petrograd in the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks promptly demobilized the Russian army. Now effectively defenceless, Russia was forced to accept a ruinous treaty at Brest-Litovsk in March, 1918, ceding vast areas of territory to the Central Powers. They were soon embroiled in a complex civil war.... More
The Crimean War represented the breaking point in tensions that had been building across Europe for some time. As part of the Holy Alliance with Prussia and Austria, Russia had assisted Austria in putting down the Hungarian revolution and was intent on engaging the Ottoman Empire without interference. Britain’s interests... More
In the chaos that engulfed eastern Europe in the wake of the abrupt end of World War I, the conflict between newly re-established Poland and newly Soviet Russia happened almost by accident. The Soviets were preoccupied with their own civil war but, in early 1919, sent forces to suppress rebellions... More
The Allied force left Pearl Harbour on 5 June 1944, and ten days later American marines were storming the beaches of Saipan Island, with the aim of securing a base in the Pacific from which the US could attack the Japanese mainland. Under heavy gunfire, and sustaining heavy losses, 20,000... More
Diversionary landings to the south failed to lure significant numbers of German troops away from the west coast neat Salerno in Campania, southern Italy. Additionally, the Allies commenced the attack, on 9 September, without prior naval artillery bombardment, hoping to maintain the element of surprise. The main German defensive groupings... More
The Sassanian Empire enjoyed a newfound level of prosperity under the reforms of Khosrau I. It was engaged in frequent conflict with the Byzantine Empire on its western border, with sporadic raids by the White Huns in the north. The Byzantine Emperor Maurice, who had aided the new Sassanian Emperor... More
The duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were located between Denmark and Prussia and had, for much of their history, been dynastically interlinked, and within the gift of the Danish Crown. However, the rules of succession in Schleswig prescribed only male heirs could inherit. When the childless Frederick VII became king... More
Postwar Germany overwhelmingly ascribed their ultimate defeat to the failure of Field Marshal von Moltke to adhere to the Schlieffen Plan. This plan, prepared in 1905, dictated a lightning strike with overwhelming force on the western front, rapidly capturing Paris and neutralizing France, thence enabling German forces to concentrate on... More
The medieval Scottish Church held a unique position within the Catholic Church. While it was not awarded an archbishopric (Ireland had four), its ten bishoprics were conferred the status of ‘special daughters of Rome’ by the Bull Cum Universi (1192) of Pope Celestine III. This insulated the Scottish Church from... More
Despite its uncompromising reputation, the Presbyterian Reformation in Scotland was implemented with far more tolerance than was displayed south of the border. Monasteries were not abruptly dissolved with their assets seized for the royal coffers, but simply allowed to die out with their residents. Similarly, the process of conversion of... More