The Great Depression of 1929 had led to widespread poverty and hardship throughout Germany, resulting in the radicalisation of the electorate. The cabinet of Heinrich Brüning was governing by emergency presidential decree and the elections of 14 September 1930 were called in the hope of gaining parliamentary backing. However, the... More
General Eisenhower planned the main Rhine offensives in the north. Further south Lieutenant-General Bradley’s 12th Army Group, comprising US 1st and 3rd Armies was charged with reaching the Rhine between Cologne and Koblenz in Operation Lumberjack. Lieutenant-General Devers’ 6th Army Group, comprising the US 7th and French 1st Armies was... More
The Fifteenth Amendment to the US Constitution (1870) asserts a citizen’s right to ‘vote... cannot be denied… on account of race, colour or previous condition of servitude’. Almost a century later, this was still ‘honoured more in the breach than the observance’ in the American South. Despite Civil Rights Acts... More
The Emperor Constantine, founder of a new city at Byzantium and the first Roman emperor to espouse Christianity, steered a tortuous route to power. Born (c. 285) in the province of Moesia Superior (modern Serbia), he served with distinction in the east. His father, Constantinus, succeeded to the rank of... More
The Prussian state, which would dominate 19th-century Europe, had its origins in some mutual diplomatic backscratching in the Holy Roman Empire, over 400 years earlier. In 1411, Frederick VI of Nuremberg was rewarded with the plum seat of Prince Elector of Brandenburg for supporting Sigismund of Hungary in obtaining the... More
The ‘Great Elector’, Frederick William (1640–88), came to power with Brandenburg-Prussia in ruins from the multiple invasions of the Thirty Years’ War. His father, George William, while trying to claim neutrality, had been forced to espouse, at various points, both the Catholic and Protestant cause and consequently had his lands... More
After the final annexation of Poland between Prussia, Russia and Austria in 1795, Prussia became part of a coalition that opposed the French in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The War of the First Coalition (1792–97) consisted of Austria, Prussia, the Netherlands,... More
Frederick William I became king of Prussia in 1713. He centralized the Prussian state and took possession of West Pomerania in a 1720 settlement with Sweden. He increased the army and invested in commerce and industry. His successor and son, Frederick II, ‘Frederick the Great’ (r. 1740–86), immediately conquered prosperous... More
The Aztec first arrived in the Valley of Mexico as migrants from the north, following the collapse of the Toltec Empire around 1150. Warlike hunter-gatherers, they gained a niche as mercenaries for the cluster of city-states which controlled the region, often forced to uproot when they outstayed their welcome. Eventually,... More
The Irish rebellion of 1641 was ‘conceived among us, but we never felt it kick in the womb, nor struggle at the birth’ according to a Protestant settler. What began as an aristocratic coup d’etat rapidly mutated into violent attacks against the Plantation Protestant colonies by dispossessed Irish Catholics. The... More
Although Nero managed to defend the territories of the Roman Empire during his reign, discontent amongst many within the ruling class reached breaking point after he massively increased public spending following the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE. A rebellion against Nero began in 68 CE led by Vindex,... More
Julius Caesar had waged unsanctioned wars in Gaul and was threatened with criminal charges in Rome. Instead he refused to step down from his military command, and initiated a civil war against his old rival Pompey when he crossed the Rubicon, a small river between Italy and Gaul, on 10... More