Frederick William I became king of Prussia in 1713. He centralized the Prussian state and took possession of West Pomerania in a 1720 settlement with Sweden. He increased the army and invested in commerce and industry. His successor and son, Frederick II, ‘Frederick the Great’ (r. 1740–86), immediately conquered prosperous... More
The Aztec first arrived in the Valley of Mexico as migrants from the north, following the collapse of the Toltec Empire around 1150. Warlike hunter-gatherers, they gained a niche as mercenaries for the cluster of city-states which controlled the region, often forced to uproot when they outstayed their welcome. Eventually,... More
The Irish rebellion of 1641 was ‘conceived among us, but we never felt it kick in the womb, nor struggle at the birth’ according to a Protestant settler. What began as an aristocratic coup d’etat rapidly mutated into violent attacks against the Plantation Protestant colonies by dispossessed Irish Catholics. The... More
Although Nero managed to defend the territories of the Roman Empire during his reign, discontent amongst many within the ruling class reached breaking point after he massively increased public spending following the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE. A rebellion against Nero began in 68 CE led by Vindex,... More
Julius Caesar had waged unsanctioned wars in Gaul and was threatened with criminal charges in Rome. Instead he refused to step down from his military command, and initiated a civil war against his old rival Pompey when he crossed the Rubicon, a small river between Italy and Gaul, on 10... More
By the time of the death of Emperor Trajan in 117, the Roman Empire had reached its zenith in terms of territorial extent. Trajan succeeded Nerva as Emperor in 98, and from 101 sought to incorporate the wealthy kingdom of Dacia (roughly speaking, present-day Romania), which boasted gold mines. From... More
Under Augustus (r. 31 BCE –14 CE) Rome had become one of the world’s greatest empires, which went on to enjoy some 200 years of unrivalled stability (the Pax Romana, or Roman peace). The dynastic struggles of Augustus’s heirs, the Julio-Claudian dynasty, were followed by the much more stable, expansionist... More
After a series of civil wars, Constantine became sole Roman Emperor from 324–37. He converted to Christianity and made Constantinople (Constantinopolis) in the east, named after himself, his imperial residence. He introduced a series of reforms, including the creation of the Prefectura. These were praetorian guards who were the emperor’s... More
The Roman Emperor, Theodosius, died in 395 CE, having reigned since 379 as a Christian. He is credited with eliminating paganism and making Christianity the state religion. The empire was divided into a complex system of administrative divisions called dioceses, which were subordinated to three regional prefectures. Theodosius fought two... More
After reaching its maximum extent under Trajan, the Roman Empire began a gradual decline from 117 CE onwards. Lowland Scotland between Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall was abandoned as a permanent area of settlement around 185 CE because the resources needed to defend the area outweighed the benefits. Similarly,... More
The Rhine and Upper Danube were the natural frontiers that secured the borders of Rome’s dominion. These natural barriers were transformed into a fortified border that marked the edge of Empire and hence the civilized world. These rivers protected the Roman world with the exception of a gap stretching from... More
By 200 BCE, the Romans based their armies around the maniple (‘handful’) of c. 160 men, typically arrayed in the quincunx checkerboard formation; this supplied the flexibility to outmanoeuvre enemies arrayed in a massed phalanx, or respond to more mobile cavalry attack. In battle, the Romans usually placed patrician cavalry... More