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The Rise of Prussia 1411–1618
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The Rise of Prussia 1411–1618
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The Prussian state, which would dominate 19th-century Europe, had its origins in some mutual diplomatic backscratching in the Holy Roman Empire, over 400 years earlier. In 1411, Frederick VI of Nuremberg was rewarded with the plum seat of Prince Elector of Brandenburg for supporting Sigismund of Hungary in obtaining the... More
The Rise of Prussia 1618–1713
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The Rise of Prussia 1618–1713
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The ‘Great Elector’, Frederick William (1640–88), came to power with Brandenburg-Prussia in ruins from the multiple invasions of the Thirty Years’ War. His father, George William, while trying to claim neutrality, had been forced to espouse, at various points, both the Catholic and Protestant cause and consequently had his lands... More
The Rise of Prussia 1795–1815
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The Rise of Prussia 1795–1815
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After the final annexation of Poland between Prussia, Russia and Austria in 1795, Prussia became part of a coalition that opposed the French in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The War of the First Coalition (1792–97) consisted of Austria, Prussia, the Netherlands,... More
The Rise of Prussia, 1713–1795
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The Rise of Prussia, 1713–1795
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Frederick William I became king of Prussia in 1713. He centralized the Prussian state and took possession of West Pomerania in a 1720 settlement with Sweden. He increased the army and invested in commerce and industry. His successor and son, Frederick II, ‘Frederick the Great’ (r. 1740–86), immediately conquered prosperous... More
The Rise of the Aztec Empire 1200–1500
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The Rise of the Aztec Empire 1200–1500
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The Aztec first arrived in the Valley of Mexico as migrants from the north, following the collapse of the Toltec Empire around 1150. Warlike hunter-gatherers, they gained a niche as mercenaries for the cluster of city-states which controlled the region, often forced to uproot when they outstayed their welcome. Eventually,... More
The Rising of 1641
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The Rising of 1641
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The Irish rebellion of 1641 was ‘conceived among us, but we never felt it kick in the womb, nor struggle at the birth’ according to a Protestant settler. What began as an aristocratic coup d’etat rapidly mutated into violent attacks against the Plantation Protestant colonies by dispossessed Irish Catholics. The... More
The Roman Empire 68 CE
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The Roman Empire 68 CE
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Although Nero managed to defend the territories of the Roman Empire during his reign, discontent amongst many within the ruling class reached breaking point after he massively increased public spending following the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE. A rebellion against Nero began in 68 CE led by Vindex,... More
The Roman Empire at the Death of Caesar, 44 BCE
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The Roman Empire at the Death of Caesar, 44 BCE
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Julius Caesar had waged unsanctioned wars in Gaul and was threatened with criminal charges in Rome. Instead he refused to step down from his military command, and initiated a civil war against his old rival Pompey when he crossed the Rubicon, a small river between Italy and Gaul, on 10... More
The Roman Empire c. 117 CE
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The Roman Empire c. 117 CE
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By the time of the death of Emperor Trajan in 117, the Roman Empire had reached its zenith in terms of territorial extent. Trajan succeeded Nerva as Emperor in 98, and from 101 sought to incorporate the wealthy kingdom of Dacia (roughly speaking, present-day Romania), which boasted gold mines. From... More
The Roman Empire c. 180 CE
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The Roman Empire c. 180 CE
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Under Augustus (r. 31 BCE –14 CE) Rome had become one of the world’s greatest empires, which went on to enjoy some 200 years of unrivalled stability (the Pax Romana, or Roman peace). The dynastic struggles of Augustus’s heirs, the Julio-Claudian dynasty, were followed by the much more stable, expansionist... More
The Roman Empire under Constantine 324–37CE
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The Roman Empire under Constantine 324–37CE
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After a series of civil wars, Constantine became sole Roman Emperor from 324–37. He converted to Christianity and made Constantinople (Constantinopolis) in the east, named after himself, his imperial residence. He introduced a series of reforms, including the creation of the Prefectura. These were praetorian guards who were the emperor’s... More
The Roman Empire under Theodosius 395 CE
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The Roman Empire under Theodosius 395 CE
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The Roman Emperor, Theodosius, died in 395 CE, having reigned since 379 as a Christian. He is credited with eliminating paganism and making Christianity the state religion. The empire was divided into a complex system of administrative divisions called dioceses, which were subordinated to three regional prefectures. Theodosius fought two... More