Henry VIII extended the policies of the English Reformation to Ireland, but less profitably to the Crown. His ‘amiable persuasions’ included bribing the feudal nobles to swear allegiance to him with grants of confiscated monastic land. Edward VI (r. 1547–53) continued his father’s programme, but it stalled with the accession... More
In 1996, after four years of civil resistance, Kosovo Albanians, who had been suppressed by Slobodan Milosevic’s Serbian-dominated government (the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, consisting of Serbia and Montenegro) since 1992, became embroiled in open war with the Serbian occupying forces. In 1996 the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), using arms... More
The famous Mason-Dixon line originated in a dispute between ferrymen. John Wright, a Quaker preacher and keen bird-watcher settled on the Susquehanna River in 1724, opening his cattle-powered ferry across the river. Its presence attracted a cluster of Pennsylvania Dutch families to the area. In 1730, a Yorkshireman, Thomas Cresap... More
In 1806 the tenuous alliance between Prussia and Napoleonic France became increasingly strained by French expansionist policies and Prussia declared war in October, beginning the War of the Fourth Coalition. Except for its ally Saxony, Prussia was alone in its fight against France during this opening phase of the war.... More
The Pueblos Native American Indians were a collection of tribes living in Arizona and New Mexico. They lived in villages, frequently in dwellings carved out of cliffsides, and their economies were primarily agricultural. The Spanish colonized what was to become New Mexico in 1601. Once there, they persecuted and subjugated... More
The pharaohs of Ancient Egypt were not just all powerful temporal rulers, they expected to become gods in the afterlife and constructed massive funerary monuments, filled with all the everyday objects they could possibly need, to serve them in the next world. The first pyramid at Giza, the oldest of... More
In 1774, the British Parliament signed the Québec Act, which outlined new legislative structures and territorial boundaries for the territory of Québec. Québec was the former French territory of New France, which had been ceded to Britain under the 1763 Treaty of Paris following the Seven Years’ War. The act... More
After victory in the Seven Years’ War, the British gained possession from France of vast Canadian territories together with the western hinterlands of their American colonies. In the aftermath of the war, those American colonies became increasingly alienated by the British government’s attempt to recoup its war debts by ‘taxation... More
The Race to the Sea was the last mobile phase of the war on the Western Front until the German Spring Offensive in 1918. It arose when the Allied advance after the First Battle of the Marne was halted by well-fortified German defences at the Battle of the Aisne. Each... More
The Rashidun (‘Rightly Guided’) were five close companions of the prophet Muhammad who were, successively, caliphs during the expansion of the Islamic Empire (632–61). The empire dissolved into civil war with the assassination of Caliph Uthman (656–61 (the ‘first Fitna’) and again with the death of the first Umayyad caliph,... More
The Great Schism of 1054, a dispute between Rome and Constantinople over who held jurisdiction over the Church in Sicily, permanently divided Christianity between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. By 1100 Roman Catholicism reached into most of western and central Europe, with the Pope acting as the centralized... More
Following Saladin’s decisive victory at Hattin in 1187, the Kingdom of Jerusalem sans Jerusalem, was reduced to isolated pockets of coast round Antioch, Tripoli and Tyre. Three armies arrived at intervals in the Holy Land: Leopold V of Austria commanding the imperial German forces; King Philip II with the French;... More