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The Permian World 290–250 million years ago
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The Permian World 290–250 million years ago
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The early Permian saw the collision of the landmasses of Laurentia and Gondwanaland. This was followed by the fusion of proto Siberia, Angara, to form the vast proto continent, Pangea, surrounded by the ocean of Panthalassa. At the same time, the constituents of modern South and East Asia sheared from... More
The Persian Empire 550–330 BCE
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The Persian Empire 550–330 BCE
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Astyages, king of Media, was the dominant power in the Middle East when he moved to crush a rebellion in Persia, led by his grandson Cyrus. Cyrus triumphed at the Battle of Pasargadae, going on the capture the Median capital Ecbatana (550 BCE). Now in control of a substantial empire,... More
The Phoney War German and Allied Plans September 1939–April 1940
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The Phoney War German and Allied Plans September 1939–April 1940
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In October 1939 the Germans created ‘Fall Gelb’ (Plan Yellow), plotting an invasion of France via Belgium, avoiding the Maginot Line. In January 1940, a German plane carrying documents crashed in Belgium, forcing a change of tactics. Army Group B would invade through the Netherlands and Belgium, focusing the Allies’... More
The Piave Offensive June–July 1918
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The Piave Offensive June–July 1918
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With Russia out of the war, Germany was keen for Austria-Hungary to make a decisive strike against Italy, in the hope that it might divert Allied troops from the western front. The Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff, von Straussenburg, buoyed by the decisive victory at Caporetto, decided on a broad frontal... More
The Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in the 13th century
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The Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in the 13th century
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The cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is believed to hold the remains of the apostle St James. Local visits to the shrine are recorded in the 9th century, but it became a major centre of international pilgrimage through the evangelism of Pope Calixtus II (1119–24), who instituted ‘Compostelan years’ and... More
The Polish Revolts 1831 and 1861
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The Polish Revolts 1831 and 1861
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The Polish/Lithuanian Commonwealth became a victim of ruthless realpolitik, progressively partitioned between Russia, Austria and Prussia (1772–95). The Congress of Vienna (1815), agreed that the Russian emperor would rule his Polish territories separately as their king, respecting their constitution and Sejm (parliament). He ignored these niceties, and adopted a steadily... More
The Pontun Empire c. 129–110 BCE
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The Pontun Empire c. 129–110 BCE
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Mithridates V, king of Pontus, was careful to be a loyal ally of the contemporary superpower, Rome, supporting its wars against Carthage and Pergamon, and was given Phrygia as a thank-you present (129 BCE) by the local Consul, Manius Aquilius. The gift was apparently considered over-generous; Aquilius was accused of... More
The Predominant Economy of North America c. 1500
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The Predominant Economy of North America c. 1500
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Before the arrival of Europeans in North America, the numerous Native American tribes had developed different lifestyles and ways of living off the land. In the east, the Mississippian tribal groups were some of the first to transition away from the hunter-gatherer nomadic lifestyle, developing agriculture and settlements on a... More
The Presidencies in India c.1890
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The Presidencies in India c.1890
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As the East India Company grew it recruited guards and watchmen to to protect its possessions scattered around India. This group evolved into field armies that were then organized under its three ‘presidencies’, Bengal, Bombay and Madras, hence the Bengal Army, Bombay Army and Madras Army. In 1748 these were... More
The Presidential Election 1824
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The Presidential Election 1824
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With the collapse of the Federalist party and the end of the Congressional Caucus nomination system, there were four main Democratic-Republican candidates running for president in 1824. They were: William H. Crawford (secretary to the treasury and the ‘official’ candidate to replace Monroe); Henry Clay (speaker of the House of... More
The Presidential Election 1828
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The Presidential Election 1828
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By the 1820s, great changes were convulsing the country. New factories were opened, particularly in New England, and an urban working class was emerging. New states such as Ohio adopted the Constitution, which extended the vote to all white adult males. Expansion of the franchise still had far to go,... More
The Presidential Election 1832
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The Presidential Election 1832
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The election of 1832 saw Andrew Jackson opposed by Republican Henry Clay, in his second bid for presidency, and William Wirt, candidate for the Anti-Masonic party. The first ‘third-party’ election, this was also the first time that candidates were chosen by national nominating conventions, rather than congressional caucus or state... More