Approved in 1864, work did not begin on the Northern Pacific Railroad until 1870, owing to what would become a perennial struggle for financing. Intended to link the Great Lakes with the Puget Sound on the Pacific, the designated route traversed some of America’s most rugged wilderness: early work parties... More
In 960, military general Zhao Kuangyin led a military coup to overthrow the Later Zhou dynasty (the last of the Five Dynasties), enabling him to establish both the Song dynasty and himself as Emperor Taizu. The first era of the Song, known as Northern Song, was a prosperous time of... More
The Allied occupation of Austria began on 27 April 1945, and the US, UK, USSR and France agreed the borders of their occupation zones in July 1945. Vienna was also divided between the four Allied powers, although the historical centre of the city was declared an international zone, and the... More
At the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861, the Confederacy consisted of eleven secessionist slave-holding states. Kentucky began the war as neutral, but came under Union control. Missouri began as a Union state, even though it was slave-owning and mostly pro-Confederate. During the war it split into two,... More
The advance into the Odon Valley began on 10 July with Operation Jupiter. It followed on from the advances made during Operation Charnwood, which successfully pushed the Germans south of the Odon river in Caen. Operation Jupiter succeeded in taking villages in the area but failed to take the important... More
In 1779 the British were embarrassed by the capture of their governor of Quebec, ‘the Hairbuyer General’ (for his commissioning of scalping raids), and made repeated attempts to regain the initiative in the western frontiers. The ambitious attempt of the former British officer and fur-trader Emanuel Hesse to sail down... More
1n 1787 Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, which established the boundaries of the different areas within the northwestern territories. These included Michigan Territory, Virginia, Kentucky and Ohio. In 1802, the Ohio Enabling Act called for Ohio to be admitted into the United States of America. There had been a long-running... More
Since Medieval times Jerusalem’s Old City, within modern Jerusalem, was divided into four religious quarters: Muslim, Christian, Armenian and Jewish. The city’s walls, which include the Jaffa gate (rebuilt in 1898), were constructed in the 1600s by the Ottoman emperor, Suleiman the Magnificent. By c. 2000, the two largest quarters... More
Although hostile nomadic tribes were making Red Sea trade difficult for Egypt, the Wawat region in Nubia was beginning to pose a more serious threat to its economic interests. The corridor to sub-Saharan Africa depended on a compliant Nubia and now the Nile trade route from Elephantine to Yam was... More
Although aspects of capitalist policy were introduced under Gorbachev’s perestroika reforms in the late 1980s, large-scale privatization of Russia’s state-owned businesses did not take off until 1992. Russia initially pursued a process of voucher privatization, whereby all citizens received vouchers that could be used to obtain shares. Russia and much... More
The Ōnin War came about when a dispute over the succession of the Ashikaga Shogunate led to civil war. Individuals from the families of two powerful daimyo (feudal lords) led the fighting, namely Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sozen (the Red Monk), and most of the Shugos (feudal governors) took sides... More
During the Ordovician, there were no landmasses in the northern hemisphere, which was entirely covered by the global ocean of Panthalassa. The southern continents were fused into the supercontinent Gondwanaland, which started the period abutting the equator, but drifted steadily southward. To the west of Gondwana, between the equator and... More