Napoleon Bonaparte, French military commander, was at the apex of his power in 1809 after successful campaigns against various European coalitions. Napoleon or members of his family ruled much of Europe. France’s expansion into an imperial power began in 1796 when General Napoleon’s Italian Campaigns expelled the Austrian Habsburgs from... More
The Medes, or Medians, were a group of early Iranian tribes who united under King Cyaxares (624–585 BCE) and formed an alliance with the Babylonians under King Nabopolassar against the Neo-Assyrians, who at the time ruled most of the Near East. Assyrian fragmentation led to their loss of the cities... More
The Amarna letters were clay tablets excavated from El-Amara, Pharaoh Akhenaten’s city. Spanning over 30 years and written in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the Far East, they are the correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in the occupied territories. These letters provide an abundance of information about... More
Under intense political pressure from the Sasanian Empire, the Persian church declared its independence from the Roman Church in 424 CE. Four years later Nestorius was appointed patriarch of Constantinople and soon provoked a doctrinal storm by challenging the established church position that Mary was a theotokos (God-bearer), declaring that... More
From 1572, Spanish armies, initially under the Duke of Alba, conducted a ruthless suppression of Dutch rebels. The revolt had been provoked by autocratic rule, high taxation and the suppression of the Protestant religion. In 1576, in the Pacification of Ghent, the rebels, previously divided, agreed a common front. However,... More
In 1555, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V abdicated and King Phillip II of Spain acquired the German and Spanish empires, including the Low Countries. Catholic rebellion in the Netherlands led to the persecution and execution of Protestants under the Duke of Alba and his Council of Troubles (also known... More
In 1587, Maurice of Nassau (son of William of Orange) was made Captain General of the Dutch rebel army in the Spanish Netherlands. With its navy shattered by the destruction of the Armada, an enfeebled, and soon bankrupt, Spain suffered reverse after reverse at Maurice’s hands, its unpaid troops frequently... More
From 1609, a truce subsisted for twelve years between the Spanish and Dutch. However, war would eventually reignite because neither side would commit to religious tolerance in the areas they controlled, and because of growing conflict between their respective colonial and commercial interests. In 1621, hostilities resumed; a Spanish attack... More
A provisional government, the Driemanschap, took over the Netherlands after its liberation from the French by Prussian and Russian forces in 1813. The principality of the United Netherlands was declared and the exiled William Frederick was made ‘Sovereign Prince’ and granted extensive powers. In 1815 the union of the United... More
The Dutch Revolt began in protest against the Spanish ruling monarch, Philip II. The Dutch throne had become one of the many hereditary seats of power that were amassed under the Habsburg Empire. When Charles V began the process of abdication, his son Philip II became king of Spain and... More
Charles V became Holy Roman Emperor in 1506 at the age of six, ruling until 1515 through the regency of his aunt, Margaret of Austria. The empire soon became embroiled in war with France, with one issue being Charles’s requirement for the provinces of Flanders, Artois, and Tournai to pay... More
The New (or Neo) Babylonian Empire was created from the ashes of the old Babylonian empire, ruled by Assyrian kings. In 626 BCE, Nabopolassar, a governor of Babylonia, was determined to claim the title of ‘king of Babylonia’. He succeeded in overthrowing the Assyrian rulers and established himself as king.... More