Before the white man, the Modoc inhabited the Oregon-California borders, fishing for salmon and baking water-lily seed popcorn. Following the Gold Rushes, settlers began arriving in floods. The Modoc began to attack these wagon trains, killing over 60 at Bloody Point (1852). In 1864, they agreed to move to a... More
Succeeding the Song dynasty and preceding the Ming dynasty, the Yuan was ancient China’s first foreign-led empire. Under the leadership of Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan), the Mongols implemented regimes and a class system that marginalized the Chinese. They focussed on foreign trade, with the Venetian trader Marco Polo... More
The Mongol tribes of northern China coalesced into the Mongol empire under the rule of Genghis Khan (? 1167–1227) in 1206. He set in motion a series of invasions that would reverberate in Europe for the following 50 years. By the time of his death, his armies had conquered as... More
Akbar the Great was a more complete Renaissance monarch than any European contemporary. While doubling the Mughal dominions through conquest, he was an innovative and tolerant ruler, even inventing (but not imposing) his own ‘fusion’ religion. The Mughals were a multifaceted dynasty: Shah Jahan erected both the Taj Mahal, in... More
The sixth Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb, ruled from 1658–1707, and was widely regarded as the last of the great Mughal emperors. It was during his reign that the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, and his rule held sway over nearly all the Indian subcontinent, a population of over 158 million... More
Abu’l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, known as Akbar or sometimes Akbar the Great, was the third Mughal emperor. In 1556, following the death of his father in an accident Akbar came to the throne under a regent, Bairan Khan, a loyal mentor to the young emperor and a trusted ally, who... More
Nur al-Din (born c. 1127) inherited Aleppo from Zengi, his father, in 1146. He was determined to unite the region’s Muslims against the Christian occupiers in Palestine and Syria. With the support of his brother, who had inherited Mosul, and the Abbasids in Baghdad, Nur al-Din massacred the Edessan Christians... More
By the 1120s, most of the Seljuk Empire had disintegrated, with ambitious local warlords vying for dominance. In a highly competitive field, the most ruthless was Zangi, who became atabeg (governor) of Mosul. From 1127, he attacked or double-crossed all local opposition to carve out a powerful fiefdom, before being... More
This Bronze Age civilization, clearly influenced by the earlier Minoan civilization on Crete (2000–1450 BCE) flourished in Peloponnese from the 17th to 12th centuries BCE, spreading its influence to mainland Greece, the eastern Aegean and Crete. Large palace complexes, generally built around a rectangular central hall or megaron, dominated the... More
Napoleon Bonaparte, French military commander, was at the apex of his power in 1809 after successful campaigns against various European coalitions. Napoleon or members of his family ruled much of Europe. France’s expansion into an imperial power began in 1796 when General Napoleon’s Italian Campaigns expelled the Austrian Habsburgs from... More
The Medes, or Medians, were a group of early Iranian tribes who united under King Cyaxares (624–585 BCE) and formed an alliance with the Babylonians under King Nabopolassar against the Neo-Assyrians, who at the time ruled most of the Near East. Assyrian fragmentation led to their loss of the cities... More
The Amarna letters were clay tablets excavated from El-Amara, Pharaoh Akhenaten’s city. Spanning over 30 years and written in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the Far East, they are the correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in the occupied territories. These letters provide an abundance of information about... More