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The Marshall Plan 1948
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The Marshall Plan 1948
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In the immediate aftermath of the German surrender on 8 May 1945, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented a plan that had been drawn up by Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau to partition and de-industrialize Germany, dismantle its arms industry, start rebuilding Europe's wrecked transport and agricultural systems, and alleviate the... More
The Mauryan Empire During the Reign of Asoka c.250 BCE
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The Mauryan Empire During the Reign of Asoka c.250 BCE
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After the death of Bindusara (320–270 BCE), the second ruler of the Mauryan Empire, his son Asoka faced a civil war to establish his claim to the throne. Asoka had practical experience of administration having been governor of the Malwa region, based in the city of Ujjain. He also enjoyed... More
The Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta c. 317 BCE
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The Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta c. 317 BCE
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Chandragupta Maurya’s rise to power is shrouded in mystery, although early in his life he is said to have met Alexander the Great and was well connected to ruling elites in the Magada kingdom and the city of Pataliputra. He founded his Empire in 323 BCE, and was aided by... More
The Maya 300 BCE–300 CE
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The Maya 300 BCE–300 CE
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The first civilization of Mesoamerica, the Olmecs of southern Mexico seem (like the Toltecs for the Aztecs) to have performed a cultural tutelage for the Maya, bequeathing their systems of numbering and chronology. As the Olmecs collapsed in the 4th century BCE, the Maya were beginning to urbanize in their... More
The Maya 300–1500 CE
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The Maya 300–1500 CE
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After the collapse of the pre-classic Mayan civilization, a period of around two centuries elapsed before their re-emergence. There is evidence of political interference from Teotihuacan, the powerful Mexican city-state at this time: possibly it acted as a cultural or commercial catalyst. By 600 CE, a vibrant, prosperous, competitive network... More
The Mediterranean 1914–18
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The Mediterranean 1914–18
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Between 1914–18 the focus of British naval action was in the North Sea and control of the Mediterranean was handed over to the French. Germany had detached itself from the Austro-Hungarian naval force and in 1914 moved from the Austrian Adriatic to the Sea of Marmara, where they operated under... More
The Meroitic Kingdom 6th Century BCE
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The Meroitic Kingdom 6th Century BCE
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In the 6th century BCE, the Kushites were forced south by the Assyrians and settled in the Butana region of the Nile. Here they built the city of Meroe, which rapidly grew to become a wealthy trading centre. Meroe accommodated traders from sub-Saharan Africa and countries such as India and... More
The Merville Gun Battery 1944
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The Merville Gun Battery 1944
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The Merville Gun Battery held a threatening position to the east of Gold Beach from where it had the potential to devastate ships that would be landing British forces within its line of fire. It was heavily reinforced with four 6-ft (183-cm) thick concrete casemates covered in a further 6... More
The Mexican Revolution 1910–17
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The Mexican Revolution 1910–17
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After its liberation from Spain in 1821, Mexico, replicated colonial rule through la encomienda, a quasi-feudal system confining power to a coterie of wealthy landowners. In the election of 1910, Porfirio Diaz, the strongman who had ruled uninterrupted since 1877, was challenged by a reformist, Francisco Madero. Diaz had Madero... More
The Middle East at the Dawn of Islam 628
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The Middle East at the Dawn of Islam 628
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In the early 7th century, Muhammad’s steady unification of the warring tribes of Arabia appeared to be an insignificant sideshow in a remote backwater. What mattered was the clash of the Sassanid and Byzantine Empires in all-out war (602–28). Fortunes swung violently: the Sassanids captured Syria, Palestine and Egypt, then... More
The Middle East c. 1960
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The Middle East c. 1960
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The Middle Eastern map changed dramatically in the early 20th century, with many countries gaining independence from the Ottomans and later from British or French control. By 1960–61, the region was comprised of independent states, many of them made wealthy by their oil production and reserves. Pan-Arabism, initiated by the... More
The Middle East c. 2000 BCE
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The Middle East c. 2000 BCE
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At the end of the third millennium BCE, the city-state of Ur presided over most of Mesopotamia. Apart from the capital, there were important subsidiary centres at Sippar, Nippur and Isin. After the death of the ruler, Shulgi, early in the second millennium BCE, Ur fell into decline, and was... More