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The Lower Carboniferous World 350–315 million years ago
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The Lower Carboniferous World 350–315 million years ago
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In the Lower Carboniferous, high sea levels meant that the northern hemisphere was almost devoid of land. The island of Angaraland was the only significant landmass north of the equatorial zone. Laurentia, comprising what would become North America and northern Europe, was still separated by straits from the main landmass... More
The Lower Devonian World 410–380 million years ago
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The Lower Devonian World 410–380 million years ago
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In the Lower Devonian, a secondary supercontinent to Gondwanaland was formed by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica; amongst its repercussions were the raising of the Appalachian and Caledonian Mountains. The two early supercontinents were encircled by subduction zones that would lead, eventually, to the creation of the supercontinent of... More
The Lower East Side, New York City c.1900
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The Lower East Side, New York City c.1900
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Between 1880 and 1924, some 2.5 million Ashkenazi Jews arrived in America from eastern Europe, with New York’s Lower East Side their foremost destination. The Jewish migrants were the primary single component (rivalled only by the Italians) in a flood of incomers from south and eastern Europe over this period,... More
The Ludlow Amendment 10 January 1938
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The Ludlow Amendment 10 January 1938
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The Ludlow Amendment proposed ‘Except in the event of an invasion of the United States…authority of Congress to declare war shall not become effective until confirmed in a Nationwide Referendum’. President Roosevelt was adamantly opposed, maintaining it would ‘cripple any president in his conduct of foreign affairs’. In 1930s America,... More
The Lutheran Reformation in Central Europe c. 1560
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The Lutheran Reformation in Central Europe c. 1560
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The Reformation emerged against a background of growing criticism of the temporal power and wealth of the Roman Catholic Church. This perceived corruption was epitomized by practices such as the selling of indulgences by the clergy, which absolved penitents and promised remission of their sins. In 1517 Martin Luther (1483–1546),... More
The Macedonian Kingdom 336 BCE
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The Macedonian Kingdom 336 BCE
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Under King Philip II’s 25-year rule, the kingdom of Macedonia (359–336 BCE) moved from the periphery of the Greek world to centre stage. Philip used diplomatic and marriage alliances, as well as his formidable army, to consolidate his political position. On ascending the throne of Macedonia, Philip’s first priority was... More
The Maginot Line September 1939
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The Maginot Line September 1939
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In an attempt to protect itself from sudden German attack, France built a great line of fortifications along its border with Switzerland, Germany and Luxembourg, known as the Maginot Line. The Line’s defences ranged from simple, sparsely armed blockhouses and armed bunkers with machine-gun turrets (casemates), to powerful state-of-the-art fortresses... More
The Maltese Islands 1800
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The Maltese Islands 1800
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At the end of the 18th century, Malta was a feudal anachronism ruled by the Order of St John, the Knights Hospitaller. Their moment of glory, repulsing the siege of Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1565), was long past. In 1775 an edict banning hare-hunting provoked a brief rebellion led... More
The Mamluk Conquest of the Coast 1263–91
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The Mamluk Conquest of the Coast 1263–91
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In Baibars, the Mamluk Sultan, the Levantine crusader kingdoms found their nemesis. After first consolidating his rule over the encircling Islamic territory, he began to pick off crusader strongholds. Arsuf and Safad were taken, and their respective garrisons of Knights Hospitallers and Templars were both massacred after being promised safe... More
The Manhattan Project 1942–46
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The Manhattan Project 1942–46
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The Manhattan Project was the code name for a US-led research and development project (1942–46), which assembled a team of scientists (many of them, such as Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi, refugees from fascist regimes) to exploit nuclear fission for military purposes and produce the first atomic bombs. The theoretical... More
The March of Prohibition 1913
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The March of Prohibition 1913
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Wayne Wheeler, founder of the Anti-Saloon League (1893), coined the term ‘pressure group’, and no-one since has applied the method more effectively. Described as a ‘locomotive in trousers’, he understood that, by remaining non-partisan, he could use the prohibitionist bloc vote to swing tight elections for county and state legislatures.... More
The March of Prohibition January 1904
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The March of Prohibition January 1904
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The Temperance Movement in America had its roots in the 18th century. Benjamin Rush, a Founding Father of the Republic, designed a ‘Moral and Physical Thermometer’ illustrating the degeneration associated with excessive alcohol intake. Protestant reformist groups increasingly espoused the cause; their pleas for moderation evolved into a call for... More