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The Lutheran Reformation in Central Europe c. 1560
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The Lutheran Reformation in Central Europe c. 1560
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The Reformation emerged against a background of growing criticism of the temporal power and wealth of the Roman Catholic Church. This perceived corruption was epitomized by practices such as the selling of indulgences by the clergy, which absolved penitents and promised remission of their sins. In 1517 Martin Luther (1483–1546),... More
The Macedonian Kingdom 336 BCE
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The Macedonian Kingdom 336 BCE
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Under King Philip II’s 25-year rule, the kingdom of Macedonia (359–336 BCE) moved from the periphery of the Greek world to centre stage. Philip used diplomatic and marriage alliances, as well as his formidable army, to consolidate his political position. On ascending the throne of Macedonia, Philip’s first priority was... More
The Maginot Line September 1939
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The Maginot Line September 1939
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In an attempt to protect itself from sudden German attack, France built a great line of fortifications along its border with Switzerland, Germany and Luxembourg, known as the Maginot Line. The Line’s defences ranged from simple, sparsely armed blockhouses and armed bunkers with machine-gun turrets (casemates), to powerful state-of-the-art fortresses... More
The Maltese Islands 1800
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The Maltese Islands 1800
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At the end of the 18th century, Malta was a feudal anachronism ruled by the Order of St John, the Knights Hospitaller. Their moment of glory, repulsing the siege of Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1565), was long past. In 1775 an edict banning hare-hunting provoked a brief rebellion led... More
The Mamluk Conquest of the Coast 1263–91
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The Mamluk Conquest of the Coast 1263–91
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In Baibars, the Mamluk Sultan, the Levantine crusader kingdoms found their nemesis. After first consolidating his rule over the encircling Islamic territory, he began to pick off crusader strongholds. Arsuf and Safad were taken, and their respective garrisons of Knights Hospitallers and Templars were both massacred after being promised safe... More
The Manhattan Project 1942–46
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The Manhattan Project 1942–46
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The Manhattan Project was the code name for a US-led research and development project (1942–46), which assembled a team of scientists (many of them, such as Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi, refugees from fascist regimes) to exploit nuclear fission for military purposes and produce the first atomic bombs. The theoretical... More
The March of Prohibition 1913
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The March of Prohibition 1913
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Wayne Wheeler, founder of the Anti-Saloon League (1893), coined the term ‘pressure group’, and no-one since has applied the method more effectively. Described as a ‘locomotive in trousers’, he understood that, by remaining non-partisan, he could use the prohibitionist bloc vote to swing tight elections for county and state legislatures.... More
The March of Prohibition January 1904
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The March of Prohibition January 1904
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The Temperance Movement in America had its roots in the 18th century. Benjamin Rush, a Founding Father of the Republic, designed a ‘Moral and Physical Thermometer’ illustrating the degeneration associated with excessive alcohol intake. Protestant reformist groups increasingly espoused the cause; their pleas for moderation evolved into a call for... More
The Marshall Plan 1948
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The Marshall Plan 1948
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In the immediate aftermath of the German surrender on 8 May 1945, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented a plan that had been drawn up by Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau to partition and de-industrialize Germany, dismantle its arms industry, start rebuilding Europe's wrecked transport and agricultural systems, and alleviate the... More
The Mauryan Empire During the Reign of Asoka c.250 BCE
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The Mauryan Empire During the Reign of Asoka c.250 BCE
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After the death of Bindusara (320–270 BCE), the second ruler of the Mauryan Empire, his son Asoka faced a civil war to establish his claim to the throne. Asoka had practical experience of administration having been governor of the Malwa region, based in the city of Ujjain. He also enjoyed... More
The Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta c. 317 BCE
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The Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta c. 317 BCE
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Chandragupta Maurya’s rise to power is shrouded in mystery, although early in his life he is said to have met Alexander the Great and was well connected to ruling elites in the Magada kingdom and the city of Pataliputra. He founded his Empire in 323 BCE, and was aided by... More
The Maya 300 BCE–300 CE
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The Maya 300 BCE–300 CE
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The first civilization of Mesoamerica, the Olmecs of southern Mexico seem (like the Toltecs for the Aztecs) to have performed a cultural tutelage for the Maya, bequeathing their systems of numbering and chronology. As the Olmecs collapsed in the 4th century BCE, the Maya were beginning to urbanize in their... More