In the two and a half years following their entry into the war, the Italian army launched a total of eleven battles along the Isonzo. Throughout, the Austro-Hungarian forces would follow the maxim of their commander Boroevic, ‘build positions, place obstacles in front of them and stay there’. Bar a... More
Marshal Cadorna was Italian Chief of Staff until he was unseated in the aftermath of the debacle of the Battle of Caporetto in November 1917. He was notable for his extreme incompetence, which was only matched by his ineptitude. The early Isonzo battles displayed, unadulterated, his standard modus operandi, artillery... More
Diverted from the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo to repel the Trentino invasion, the Italians returned to the scene for the Sixth Battle, the most successful battle of the series, which included the capture of the Gorizia bridgehead east of the river. The remaining engagements of 1916 sought to expand... More
Built of mud, basalt and wood from the desert saxaul bush, deep in the arid hinterland of the Gobi, the ‘Wall of Genghis Khan’ is both a misnomer (it was probably built by the Xia Dynasty) and a desolate monument to futility: constructed in around 1100, there is no evidence... More
The Jurassic period saw the continuation of the breakup of the primordial supercontinent, Pangea. A large southern continent, Gondwanaland, was balanced by a northern continental cluster, Laurasia. Here intense submarine volcanic activity caused the spreading of the ocean floor, in turn triggering subductions that would ultimately extrude the Andean, Tibetan... More
In the late 6th century CE the Khazars, a warlike tribe from the region of present-day Kazakhstan, exploited the destruction of the preceding Gὂkturk Khaganate by the Chinese Tang Dynasty to carve out a foothold in what had had been the Gὄkturks’ western frontier on the lower Volga River. Fellow... More
“The Unready”, King Eathelred’s sobriquet, meant “ill-advised”, but he might justifiably be termed unlucky, as his accession in 979 at 13, was quickly followed by the resumption of concerted Viking raiding after a hiatus of several decades. His defeat by a Viking army at Maldon (991) led to a resumption... More
In 911, following the death of Louis the Child, the Carolingian dynasty ceased to reign in East Francia, and kingship became elective. The first rulers of the German kingdom were elected from the so-called “stem duchies”, which had emerged during the Frankish period, and sometimes were also called kingdoms –... More
The new kingdom of Holland replaced the Batavian Republic, which was a client state of revolutionary France, founded after the conquest of the Netherlands in 1795. The Republic governed itself, instituting political changes and improvements. When Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of the French in May 1804, he was concerned about... More
The golden age of al-Andalus peaked during the late 10th century, when al-Mansur, an advisor at the Umayyad court, became the regent and effective ruler of al-Andalus. His dominance had, however, effectively eroded the perceived power of the emir and on his death in 1002 the rulers of a mosaic... More
In the latter half of the 11th century the warring Islamic states of Iberia (the taifas) became increasingly reliant on the Almoravids of North Africa, a Berber dynasty with a strong military tradition and strict adherence to Islam, to resist the advance of the Christian kingdoms from the north. In... More
The Christian kingdoms of Iberia vied with each other for dominance, and occasionally formed alliances. By the beginning of the 15th century four kingdoms were dominant: Castile (permanently united with Léon from 1230), Aragon, Navarre and Portugal. The decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 was a turning... More