In October 1940 Italy invaded Greece from Albania but the Greeks forced them back; in early 1941 the Italians failed in a further counterattack so Germany intervened. As German forces gathered in Bulgaria, the Allies realized that a Greek invasion seemed likely. Under the declaration of 1939, Britain was bound... More
Serbia was unfinished business for the Central Powers after the abortive invasion of 1914. Austria-Hungary, fighting on two fronts after Italy’s entry to the war, had been reluctant to attack Serbia again. But the crushing victory over Russia at Gorlice-Tarnow relieved their northern front, and then, in September 1915, Bulgaria... More
While the greatest concentrations of Irish Catholics in America remained eastern-based and urban, they would contribute significantly to the settlement of the American West. The 1849 Gold Rush attracted a substantial Irish influx to California: by 1880 37 per cent of the population of San Francisco was Irish. In the... More
The Irish rebellion, which began in Ulster in 1641, was launched by Irish Catholic gentry who attempted to seize control of the English administration in Ireland and gain concessions for Catholics. The revolt may have also been precipitated by long-standing grievances caused by the Ulster Plantation of 1610. The attempted... More
In the two and a half years following their entry into the war, the Italian army launched a total of eleven battles along the Isonzo. Throughout, the Austro-Hungarian forces would follow the maxim of their commander Boroevic, ‘build positions, place obstacles in front of them and stay there’. Bar a... More
Marshal Cadorna was Italian Chief of Staff until he was unseated in the aftermath of the debacle of the Battle of Caporetto in November 1917. He was notable for his extreme incompetence, which was only matched by his ineptitude. The early Isonzo battles displayed, unadulterated, his standard modus operandi, artillery... More
Diverted from the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo to repel the Trentino invasion, the Italians returned to the scene for the Sixth Battle, the most successful battle of the series, which included the capture of the Gorizia bridgehead east of the river. The remaining engagements of 1916 sought to expand... More
Built of mud, basalt and wood from the desert saxaul bush, deep in the arid hinterland of the Gobi, the ‘Wall of Genghis Khan’ is both a misnomer (it was probably built by the Xia Dynasty) and a desolate monument to futility: constructed in around 1100, there is no evidence... More
The Jurassic period saw the continuation of the breakup of the primordial supercontinent, Pangea. A large southern continent, Gondwanaland, was balanced by a northern continental cluster, Laurasia. Here intense submarine volcanic activity caused the spreading of the ocean floor, in turn triggering subductions that would ultimately extrude the Andean, Tibetan... More
In the late 6th century CE the Khazars, a warlike tribe from the region of present-day Kazakhstan, exploited the destruction of the preceding Gὂkturk Khaganate by the Chinese Tang Dynasty to carve out a foothold in what had had been the Gὄkturks’ western frontier on the lower Volga River. Fellow... More
“The Unready”, King Eathelred’s sobriquet, meant “ill-advised”, but he might justifiably be termed unlucky, as his accession in 979 at 13, was quickly followed by the resumption of concerted Viking raiding after a hiatus of several decades. His defeat by a Viking army at Maldon (991) led to a resumption... More
In 911, following the death of Louis the Child, the Carolingian dynasty ceased to reign in East Francia, and kingship became elective. The first rulers of the German kingdom were elected from the so-called “stem duchies”, which had emerged during the Frankish period, and sometimes were also called kingdoms –... More