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The Hittite Empire and Neighbouring States 1400–1100 BCE
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The Hittite Empire and Neighbouring States 1400–1100 BCE
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The Hittites were perhaps the most spectacular casualties of the Bronze Age collapse, which swept away the major powers of the Near East in the 12th century BCE. Its triggers are disputed, but this seems to have been a time of widespread population displacement, including the marauding, mysterious ‘Sea People’.... More
The Hittite Empire at its Maximum Extent c. 1320 BCE
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The Hittite Empire at its Maximum Extent c. 1320 BCE
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The Hittites first came to prominence in the 17th century BCE, and managed to master the forging of iron, which gave them combat edge in the durability of their weaponry over Bronze Age rivals. In an early imperial phase, they reached, and sacked, Babylon (1531 BCE) but then lapsed into... More
The Hittite Homeland and Neighbouring States c. 1400 BCE
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The Hittite Homeland and Neighbouring States c. 1400 BCE
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The Hittites, an ancient Anatolian tribe, were near their nadir in 1400 BCE; after the death of Telipinu I around a century before their territories had steadily retrenched. To the south, the Egyptian Empire was at its zenith under the 18th Dynasty, but the Hittites were too parochial for this... More
The Holy Church in the British Isles c. 1500
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The Holy Church in the British Isles c. 1500
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The English Reformation was essentially a political confection, driven by Henry VIII, without the powerful grass-roots element of its German predecessors. The Black Death had already devastated many monastic communities and many thenceforth fell into decline, but this process was mitigated by the rise of mendicant orders. There is limited... More
The Holy Land and the First Crusade 1095–1099
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The Holy Land and the First Crusade 1095–1099
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In 1095 Pope Urban II called upon Western Christendom to liberate Jerusalem and eastern Byzantium from Muslim encroachment. They feared the Seljuk Turks (Sunni Muslims) on their borders and wished to reclaim lands taken by them. Urban also had a personal motive for his appeal, he wanted to centralize divided... More
The Holy League 1571
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The Holy League 1571
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The Sack of Rome in 1527 by mutinous troops of the Holy Roman Empire forced the pope to reach an accommodation with the Spanish Habsburgs. Emperor Charles V faced Europe-wide criticism for his army’s actions and left the papal states intact and guaranteed Medici rule over Florence. The papal states... More
The Holy Roman Empire 1477
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The Holy Roman Empire 1477
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In 1477 the Holy Roman Empire, a multi-ethnic jigsaw of principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities and other domains within central Europe, was under the rule of the Habsburg Emperor Frederick III, and was poised on the brink of a conflict with Hungary. Frederick III had proved a weak but... More
The Holy Roman Empire 1797–1806
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The Holy Roman Empire 1797–1806
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When in 1792 revolutionary France declared war on Habsburg Austria, the Holy Roman Empire’s days were numbered. Habsburg Austria’s emperor, Joseph II, was also the Holy Roman emperor. Prussia allied itself to Austria and a coalition of Britain, Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Naples and Sicily. Although France was invaded on several... More
The Holy Roman Empire in Habsburg Europe c. 1600
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The Holy Roman Empire in Habsburg Europe c. 1600
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By 1600, the once great Holy Roman Empire had diminished into a medley of separate Germanic states presided over by many secular and ecclesiastical princes, some of whom were Lutheran reformists. Although allegiance was paid to the Catholic Habsburg emperor, heading a powerful dynasty that had occupied the Holy Roman... More
The Homeric World
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The Homeric World
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It is generally accepted that the semi-legendary poems, the Odyssey and the Iliad, were composed around the late 8th or early 7th century BCE, either by a single poet or by many contributors. The Iliad is a summary in verse of the long war between Troy and the Greeks. It... More
The Horn of Africa c. 1500
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The Horn of Africa c. 1500
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The Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia could already claim a lineage of over a thousand years by the 15th century: it sent envoys to Henry IV of England and established diplomatic relations with Portugal. However, as the century progressed it was increasingly threatened by Islamic neighbours – the Funj Sultanate to... More
The Hundred Years’ War 1337–1453
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The Hundred Years’ War 1337–1453
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England and France were rarely far from the brink of conflict, and the ‘confiscation’ of Aquitaine by the French king, Philip IV, was more than enough for King Edward III of England. He claimed the French throne, and devastated rural France with massed cavalry raids: ‘chevauchées’. French attempts to confront... More