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The Gulf War Phase 3: 27 February 1991
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The Gulf War Phase 3: 27 February 1991
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The final day of conflict in the Gulf War was marked by the headlong retreat of Iraqi troops from their remaining positions in Kuwait, their flight obscured by the fumes of hundreds of burning oil wells. The ragged cavalcade of retreating troops was remorselessly bombed by the coalition, well into... More
The Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad 1848–1972
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The Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad 1848–1972
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The Gulf, Mobile and Ohio railroad, a Class 1 railroad, began life in February and October 1848 when it was chartered by the states of Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Tennessee. It was originally built to connect coastal Alabama at Mobile to southern Illinois and it was only in 1938 that,... More
The Gunpowder Plot 5 November 1605
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The Gunpowder Plot 5 November 1605
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When James Stuart succeeded the childless Elizabeth I in 1603, Catholic hopes of reclaiming the throne were dashed. James had heirs, promising a continuing Protestant dynasty, and the disappointment provoked a rash of Catholic conspiracies, despite the new king’s relative tolerance towards their faith. Understandably, James’s initial tolerance dissipated, and... More
The Gupta Empire 320–525 BCE
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The Gupta Empire 320–525 BCE
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Various estimates extrapolated from historical sources would suggest that the origins of the Gupta Empire date back to around 240 CE. Sri Gupta began the line of rulers of the Gupta Empire as a regional king in northeastern India. The social background of the Gupta Dynasty appears to have been... More
The Habsburg Empire 1618
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The Habsburg Empire 1618
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The Empire of Habsburg Spain was, by 1618, a magnificent edifice in desperate need of wholesale structural repair. The king, Philip III, was indolent, leaving affairs of state to his favourite, the Duke of Lerma. Notoriously corrupt, Lerma bankrupted the economy through extravagance, debasement of the coinage, and expulsion of... More
The Habsburg Empire 1648–1914
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The Habsburg Empire 1648–1914
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Having faced destruction during the Siege of Vienna (1683), the Habsburg monarchy of Austria bounced back to secure Hungary and Transylvania from the Ottomans by the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699). Further wars with the Ottomans produced more mixed results: the Banat of Temesvar was annexed in 1718, and (mostly) retained,... More
The Hallstatt Culture 800–500 BCE
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The Hallstatt Culture 800–500 BCE
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The Hallstatt Culture dominated central and western Europe between 800–500 BCE. It was named after numerous artefacts and burials were discovered in 1846 in an old salt mine in Hallstatt, modern Austria. This proto- Celtic culture has been divided by archaeologists into four periods: A–D. Periods A–B are early Hallstatt... More
The Han Empire 140 BCE–220 CE
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The Han Empire 140 BCE–220 CE
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Liu Bang, who became the first Han emperor in 202 BCE, seized power in a rebellion against the Qin dynasty. Determined to avoid the fate of his predecessors, he imposed a centralized system of rule. Under the Han, the emperor was supreme, with an inner council of three ‘ducal ministers’.... More
The Han Empire c. 9 CE
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The Han Empire c. 9 CE
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The Han Dynasty, with a brief interregnum, lasted for over 400 years, and its longevity derived from a solid system of administrative control. The standard unit of local government was the commandery, each headed by an administrator reporting in to a provincial governor or inspector. Interwoven with the commanderies were... More
The Hanseatic League and the Baltic 1370–1500
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The Hanseatic League and the Baltic 1370–1500
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The members of the Hanseatic League were all independent ‘free cities’ owing direct allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1361–70, they were powerful enough to go to war with Denmark, and win, enforcing their monopoly of Danish trade and confirming it through a further war (1428–35). At their height,... More
The Helvetian Republic 1798–1803
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The Helvetian Republic 1798–1803
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In 1798 the armies of the French republic overran Switzerland, seeking to promulgate their revolutionary ideas and to liberate the Swiss from a system of government that they perceived as feudal. In 1799 French troops marched into Fricktal, proclaiming it a new independent canton. The Swiss, especially in the more... More
The Hindenburg Line 25 February–5 April 1917
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The Hindenburg Line 25 February–5 April 1917
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In the winter of 1916–17 the German General, von Hindenburg, would lend his name to a battery of defensive fortifications which, by eliminating the salient south of Arras, reduced the German front line by 30 miles (50 km). This, the Hindenburg Line, released some ten divisions from defensive duties. Between... More