As part of the Atlantic Wall fortifications stretching all along the coast of northern Europe, the fortified city of Le Havre was the most heavily defended section of the D-Day landing beaches. Its geographical position guarded it from attack on three different sides, whilst simultaneously providing its batteries with a... More
If Bismarck built the German Empire, Napoleon cleared the way. Under French control, (1802–1814) the multitude of miniature principalities and enclaves strewn across the Holy Roman Empire, which was dissolved in 1806, were consolidated and eliminated. The Congress of Vienna left ‘just’ 39 states designated the German Confederation, but the... More
After almost four years of virtually static, attritional, warfare the first days of the German spring offensive appeared devastatingly successful. Pinpointing a weak point in the Allied defences near Cambrai, the Germans followed up heavy bombardment with lightning strikes spearheaded by elite Stormtroopers. The British 5th Army was forced to... More
The German Peasants’ War lasted between 1524–26 and was the largest uprising in Europe until the French Revolution. It began near Stuhlingen and Schaffhausen on 24 June 1524 and spread throughout Germany, with its last uprisings in the Tyrol on 3 July 1526. Inspired by the Reformation, the peasants believed... More
The German Empire came into being when King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed its ruler by the representatives of the German Confederation at Versailles in 1871 in the victorious aftermath of the war with France. Over half of its territory and population was Prussian, but the empire contained four... More
France faced impending famine as summer 1794 approached after the harvest had failed, and with its ports under British blockade. A convoy crossing the Atlantic with grain from the United States promised potential salvation. A British fleet under Admiral Howe was despatched to intercept the convoy, and a French fleet... More
The Golan Heights presented the Israelis with a similar challenge to that facing the Italians along the Isonzo River in World War I: a well-entrenched enemy commanding high ground, on fractured karstic terrain. The wisdom of attacking was questionable; enemy dispositions would not favour air superiority and effective tank deployment,... More
Gold was discovered near Coloma in the Sierra Nevada in June 1848, days before Mexico ceded California to the USA. As the news spread, the effect was electrifying. The first wave of the Gold Rush was seaborne, from Hawaii, China and Latin America, and overland from adjoining Oregon Territory. Within... More
Following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the British Expeditionary Forces (BEF), under Lord Gort, assembled along the France-Belgium border to the left of the French First Army. The focus for the British was to fortify their 45-mile (72-km) stretch of this French northeastern front and protect the... More
Drawn on sheepskin, the Gough Map was donated to the Bodleian library in 1809 by the antiquarian, Richard Gough. It dates to the late 14th century (it depicts a wall around Coventry which was not constructed until 1355), and departs from the conventions of contemporary maps produced by clergy, typically... More
The Great Irish famine resulted in over a million deaths, from diseases such as cholera and dysentery, as well as starvation. Its cause, potato blight, had originated in America and spread widely throughout Europe, but nowhere were its effects as catastrophic as in Ireland. Through absent landowners and grasping agents,... More
After the end of the post-Civil War Reconstruction Period (1865–77), the ‘Bourbon Democrats’ monopolized political power in the South, orchestrating a systematic exclusion of blacks from the political process. This would be cemented by the introduction of ‘Jim Crow Laws’ of racial segregation. The black population in the South was... More