In 1890, the US Census Bureau announced the frontier closed: the wilderness, so potent in the American psyche, was officially broken, settled, tamed. In the same year, Yosemite became the first national park designated specifically to protect wilderness, and in 1889 Montana and Washington were incorporated as US states, followed... More
From 1610–1800 both the English and the colonial populations from Massachusetts to Georgia experienced rapid growth, with the colonial population doubling almost every 25 years in the 1700s. The thirteen colonies were dominated by English-speaking Protestants. While, the New England colonies stayed relatively homogenous, the middle colonies from New York... More
By the 1840s, the traffic of stagecoaches and wagon trains on the Santa Fé Trail had reached such a volume that buffalo migration was obstructed, causing great deprivation for the Southern Plains Comanche, Kiowa and Arapaho. Understandably, the Indians retaliated: raids became so frequent that a chain of forts was... More
The Galician campaign first demonstrated what the ensuing year would confirm: Austria-Hungary was a great power in name only, and its armed forces were by some margin the least effective of the major protagonists. In late August 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff von Hotzendorf ordered an advance into Poland,... More
On 3 May 1926, in response to a reduction in wages and an increase in working for hours for miners that had already led to disputes and one million miners being locked out of the mines, the Trades Union Congress (TUC ) called a strike. Out of solidarity with the... More
The Muslim world (2000) is a vast region that stretches from northern and sub Saharan Africa, through the Middle East, Balkans, Central Asia, southern Philippines and into Malaysia and Indonesia in Southeast Asia. Major populations tend to be concentrated in arid zones, such as northern and sub-Saharan Africa or Kazakhstan,... More
At the outset of World War I, both the French and the Germans sought to realize preconceived offensive strategies on the western front, respectively Plan XVII and Aufmarsch II. While the Germans immediately advanced into Belgium and Luxembourg the French, in line with their strategy, invaded Alsace and Lorraine. The... More
As part of the Atlantic Wall fortifications stretching all along the coast of northern Europe, the fortified city of Le Havre was the most heavily defended section of the D-Day landing beaches. Its geographical position guarded it from attack on three different sides, whilst simultaneously providing its batteries with a... More
If Bismarck built the German Empire, Napoleon cleared the way. Under French control, (1802–1814) the multitude of miniature principalities and enclaves strewn across the Holy Roman Empire, which was dissolved in 1806, were consolidated and eliminated. The Congress of Vienna left ‘just’ 39 states designated the German Confederation, but the... More
After almost four years of virtually static, attritional, warfare the first days of the German spring offensive appeared devastatingly successful. Pinpointing a weak point in the Allied defences near Cambrai, the Germans followed up heavy bombardment with lightning strikes spearheaded by elite Stormtroopers. The British 5th Army was forced to... More
The German Peasants’ War lasted between 1524–26 and was the largest uprising in Europe until the French Revolution. It began near Stuhlingen and Schaffhausen on 24 June 1524 and spread throughout Germany, with its last uprisings in the Tyrol on 3 July 1526. Inspired by the Reformation, the peasants believed... More
The German Empire came into being when King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed its ruler by the representatives of the German Confederation at Versailles in 1871 in the victorious aftermath of the war with France. Over half of its territory and population was Prussian, but the empire contained four... More