In the aftermath of the French Revolution, having quelled the Royalist uprising of 13 Vendémiaire (5 October) in 1795, the young General Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) rose rapidly through the ranks of the French army to become one of the most successful military commanders in world history. In 1799 he orchestrated... More
The Jewish rebellion began in Caesarea, and quickly escalated to full-scale rebellion, after the Roman governor raided the treasury of the Temple in Jerusalem to recoup unpaid taxes. With the puppet king, Herod Agrippa, fleeing the city, the Syrian legate, Cestius Gallus, was summoned south to quell the uprising. His... More
With four full Roman legions bearing down on them, bent on their destruction, the rebellious Jewish defenders of Jerusalem decided to embark on a full-scale civil war. While there were numerous sub-factions, the heart of the conflict pitted Zealot refugees from the rebellion in Galilee against the Sanhedrin, or Religious... More
Often known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, the period between the Tang and Song dynasties was a time of turmoil. In quick succession ‘dynasties’ – none lasting more than 17 years – were founded and usurped by different military leaders; non-Chinese northern tribes founded three of the five... More
By oral tradition, the Confederacy of the Five Nations was achieved through the efforts of a prophet known as the Great Peacemaker, aided by the oratory of Hiawatha. The five nations of the southern Great Lakes region were brought together in a great ‘League of Peace’. The depiction of a... More
Elbert Gary had a meteoric second career. An attorney, and for a while, a judge, until his mid-fifties, he then crossed to the steel industry. Within three years he was the first chairman of the world’s first billion-dollar corporation, US Steel, which was created out of three separate companies. Gary... More
After the disastrous failure of Austria-Hungary’s Galician campaign in the autumn of 1915, the Austrian fortress of Przemysl was left isolated and defiant as the Russians occupied all the surrounding territory in the wake of the Austro-Hungarian retreat. From 9 November–22 March Russian forces trapped 130,000 Habsburg troops. By 19... More
Since the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the papacy had retained substantial landholdings through the patrimony of St Peter, but continued to recognize the temporal authority of the eastern emperor in Constantinople. In the early 8th century, a rift developed over doctrinal differences and increasing imperial... More
From the moment it sailed, the Fourth Crusade was dominated by the commercial and political imperatives of the supplier of their fleet, the Doge of Venice. With the crusaders unable to pay, the Doge threatened to intern them in the harbor unless they subdued Venice’s trading competitors in the Adriatic,... More
Having expanded his realm in the west, in 500 The Frankish King Clovis I led an army southwards to Dijon to confront the Burgundian armies led by Roman proxy Gundobad, who was forced to flee. Burgundy was not annexed, but was obliged to pay tribute to the Franks. Then, from... More
The French and Indian Wars were the colonial North American theatre of the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), which became the first global war. The conflict had arisen from issues left unresolved by the War of the Austrian succession 1740–48. The war broke out in Europe, with coalitions developing around Britain,... More
Historians refer to Napoleon’s empire as ‘the First French Empire’, despite France having colonial possessions from the 17th century onwards. At its peak in 1811, much of western Europe was ruled directly by Napoleon or by a Bonaparte family member. Several of Napoleon’s brothers and sisters were appointed as royalty... More