The Muslim conquest of the North African Mediterranean coastline was completed in the early 8th century: the territory divided into separate caliphates, with shifting borders and spheres of influence. To their south, Ghana, Mali, then Songhay would successively dominate the western Sahara, growing rich on the trade of gold, salt... More
The carve-up of the territories of the defunct Austro-Hungarian Empire was not an orderly process. In the south, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (KSCS) was proclaimed but remained in dispute with Italy until the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920. In February 1919, the Allied council, then negotiating the... More
The Fourth Crusade from 1202–04 resulted in the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire and the establishment of a number of so called Crusader States. During this period, which became known as the Francocracy, the various Latin armies from western Europe set up a number of small competing states. These were... More
The Armistice of Mudros, marking the Ottoman Empire’s exit from World War I, was concluded between the British and Ottoman representatives on 30 October 1918. At the time, Ottoman forces were advancing in the Caucasus, but the British had taken Damascus and the Ottomans’ Bulgarian ally had sued for peace.... More
Although piecemeal and freebooting, the Norman subjugation of Ireland developed a form of routine. To protect their salient of conquest, the Normans built basic ringwork, or motte and bailey castles. Once secure, the lords built imposing stone castles, symbols of their dominance, and centres of residence, administration and entertainment. Finally,... More
Anglo-Norman power in Ireland was consolidated by the Great Charter (1217), derived from Magna Carta, and reached its zenith in the elective Parliament of 1297. Formed originally of the Norman nobility, knights and clergy, town burghers were added in 1299. Thereafter Scots invasion, famines, and the ravages of the Black... More
The Pilgrimage of Grace was a mass uprising in Yorkshire and Westmoreland (1536–37) against the suppression of Catholic religious houses then being enacted. The rebels were careful to confirm their loyalty to the king, Henry VIII; their grievance was centred on his advisers, notably, Thomas Cromwell, architect of the contested... More
The Indus valley civilization was at its peak from c. 2550 BCE. Urbanized and sophisticated, the culture’s signature pottery had black designs on a red (from ferric oxide) base, but also produced ware in a range of different colours. The Indus valley settlements began to decline from around 1800 BCE,... More
Ottokar I established the hereditary royal Přemyslid dynasty of Bohemia in 1198, and they would go on to become the prime power brokers in the Holy Roman Empire. His grandson, Ottokar II, rebelled against his father Wenceslas, and was both imprisoned and excommunicated before ascending to the throne in 1253.... More
Relations between the French Republic and its neighbouring monarchies had deteriorated since 1791. Prussia, in alliance with Austria, declared war on France in June 1792, invading a month later. Thereafter, the First Coalition, which loosely comprised Austria, Prussia, Spain, Holland, Sardinia and Britain, embarked on a series of intermittent invasions... More
In 1370 King Casimir III of Poland died without a direct heir and passed on the throne to his nephew Louis I of Hungary. This brought the two countries together in a union until Louis died in 1382 and passed the Polish throne to his youngest daughter Jadwiga, whilst his... More
The impetus for the westward expansion of Stuart London came from grandees seeking easy access to the royal palaces of St James and Whitehall, and to the parliament at Westminster. The architect Inigo Jones was commissioned to create the suburb of Covent Garden in the 1630s; Bloomsbury, St James’s and... More