In 10th-century Europe, the Hungarian tribes marauded with near impunity over a vast territory. Their new homeland in the Carpathian Basin was secured by annihilating the East Franks at Pressburg (907). From this base, they raided as far as Catalonia in northern Spain (942), Otranto (947) and the outskirts of... More
The ‘Walk to Canossa’ (1077) epitomized a reassertion of papal authority over the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Henry IV trekked through the Alps in midwinter to seek absolution for his excommunication from Pope Gregory VII. In the previous century, the emperors had been very much in the ascendant, frequently deposing... More
Like Charlemagne, Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in middle age, after serving a long and turbulent military apprenticeship. On becoming king of Germany (936), he was quickly embroiled in a ducal rebellion, and forced to crush a French attempt to seize Lotharingia. He waged repeated camapigns to... More
The reign of Justinian I saw a revival of the Byzantine Empire as he attempted to restore it to its former glory. Disputes with the Persian Sassanid Empire proved a constant threat to the security of the Byzantine frontier. Justinian signed a peace treaty with Sassanid King Khosrau I in... More
In 336 BCE, Philip II’s Macedonia had risen to control the whole of the Greek world. His son and successor Alexandra the Great took an army to the Greek and Thracian city-states to secure their allegiance. Thebes resisted and Alexander destroyed the city to warn against rebellion; in Thrace, Alexander’s... More
After his father had created a Babylonian power base in central Mesopotamia by annexing Borsippa, Kish and Sippar, Hammurabi began his reign peaceably, establishing his famous legal code and consolidating his defences. After the Elamites invaded Eshnunna, Hammurabi allied with Larsa to annex their kingdom. Larsa’s contribution to the war... More
Harsha (c. 590–647 CE), a member of the Vardhana dynasty, was the son of Prabhakar, who defeated the Alchon Huna invaders, also known as the White Huns, and younger brother of Rajyavardhana, king of Thaneswar. After the defeat of the Huna invaders and the final collapse of the Gupta Empire... More
Knud the Great was the youngest son of the Danish king, Sweyn Forkbeard, who died during an invasion of England in 1014. Sweyn’s oldest son Harald became king of Denmark and Knud returned to England with an invasion fleet in the summer of 1015, where he found a divided nation,... More
The empire of Nicaea began expanding its territory in 1225 under the leadership of John III Doukas Vatatzes. The first territories he acquired were ceded from the rival Latin Empire, immediately to the north, following an unsuccessful coup against him, for which the Latin Empire had provided support. John III... More
Kublai Khan emerged triumphant from the civil war which attended his accession, but only at the expense of the Mongol Empire’s fracture, with Kublai holding at best nominal sway over the three western khanates. But China was the prize and by 1279, he completed its conquest with the elimination of... More
The Mongol Kublai Khan was a Buddhist and Sinophile, moving his capital from Qara-qorum in Mongolia to Khanbalik in China (1271) and thus establishing the Yuan dynasty. His summer palace (the ‘stately pleasure dome’ of Coleridge’s Xanadu) was at nearby Sheng-tu. Kublai moved quickly to establish his dominion over the... More
The Holy Roman Empire was formed in 800 as a medley of independent Christian kingdoms under one ‘Holy Roman’ emperor. The empire on the eve of the French Revolution 1789 was quiescent after spending the first half of the century embroiled in conflicts with several European countries, including Spain, Poland... More