By September 1962, the US government had gathered sufficient intelligence to confirm that Russia was building long and medium range nuclear missile bases in Cuba. These missiles could reach continental America within minutes. Kennedy finally organized a quarantine of ships travelling into Cuba, blocking any that were carrying weapons. The... More
When the Roman emperor, Domitian, launched a punitive expedition against the Dacians, he suffered humiliating defeat at Sarmizegethusa in 88 CE. The Dacian general that day, Decebalus, became their king, and secured an annual retainer from the Romans to keep the peace. When Trajan became emperor in 98 CE, he... More
After the fall of France, Charles de Gaulle enjoyed British support as the nominal leader of the Free French. Dakar in French West Africa was a leading naval base and home to valuable gold reserves, but the British bombardment of the French Navy at the Algerian port of Mers-el-Kébir on... More
By the 8th century the four main Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia and Northumbria. But in the 9th century sporadic Viking raiders began to arrive from the north and the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms faced a huge upheaval. After a period of In 865 the Danes mounted a full-scale invasion,... More
The Battle of Aspern-Essling (21 May 1809) punctured Napoleon’s aura of invincibility. Although no rout, it represented his first defeat in a major engagement, and demonstrated the growing shortcomings of the formidable Grande Armée. Swelled by raw recruits and non-French contingents, it was no longer the perfect instrument of Napoleon’s... More
Unlike the Zeppelin raids, which took place at night, the Gothas’ first attacks were in daylight. These powerful aircraft flew in formation, like a flock of birds. On 7 July, the German Kagohl 3 unit flew 22 Gothas over the east coast and across Dartford on a raid over London,... More
The Kagohl 3 unit were used on 25 May 1917 and 13 June 1917 to fly Gotha daylight raids. The Gothas were ‘monsters’ with a 70-ft wingspan, powerful Mercedes engines and precision bombing capability. They each carried 13 bombs and flew in formation. The Germans thought that the Gotha would... More
In 1397, the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (including most of Finland) became allied under a single monarch by the Kalmar Union (so called after the town in southeast Sweden), and in 1460 the Germanic province of Holstein was also incorporated. The Union was formed to counter the... More
By 1800, fluency in English was seen as essential for social advancement in Ireland. It was the language of the courts and of commerce. The opening of Maynooth Seminary near Dublin (1795) by a British government grant cemented English as the language of the Catholic clergy and thus, of education,... More
In 1841, Irish speakers numbered some 4 million. Fifty years later, after the depredations of the Great Famine and endemic mass emigration, that number had dwindled to under 700,000. English had become not just the language of socio-economic advancement but survival. Concern at the decline sparked an attempted revival, exemplified... More
Following the fall of Constantinople in 1204 much of the Byzantine Empire was partitioned amongst newly created Crusader states. Latin rule in the east was never secure, and some of that instability derived from the concessions made to the increasingly dominant Venetians in order to secure their assistance in the... More
In 1814 Napoleon’s forces, depleted and weary after two years of successive defeats in Russia and central Europe, were now threatened by a coalition invasion of France itself. Outnumbered by the combined might of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and several German states, Napoleon conscripted further... More