Following the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Turks (1821–32), Greece was recognized as an independent nation in 1832. Prince Otto of Bavaria was made king of Greece in 1833, ruling as an absolute monarch until 1843 when, in the face of armed insurrection, he created a constitution. To... More
Following the death of King Charles IV of France 1328 and the crowning of Philip VI in his place, the English king, Edward III, launched the Hundred Years’ War. In 1346 he crossed the channel with 15,000 men to claim his succession to the French throne. Edward transported his army... More
During the Cretaceous period, sea levels were higher than at any other time in terrestrial history, flooding the continental margins and creating vast, warm shallow seas teeming with marine life. Their skeletal remains became the signature deposits of chalk and marine limestone that characterize the Cretaceous, and from which its... More
Crimea has always been something of an anomaly: at the time of the formation of the Soviet Union, its majority population was Tatar. Subsequent Russian immigration meant that, by 2001, over 60 per cent of the population claimed Russian ethnicity, and 77 per cent Russian as their native language. By... More
The Crimean War saw the combined forces of Britain, France and the Ottoman Empire engage the Russian Empire in its Black Sea territories around the Crimean peninsula. The background to the hostilities revolved around the threat of Russian expansion southwards into the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire, which would... More
German naval operations were fledgling at the outbreak of World War I: ‘homeless waifs’ according to their Ambassador to China until Tsingtao was purchased as a base (1898). Admiral von Spee had six warships, but the allied navies in the region, particularly those of Japan and Australia, were clearly superior.... More
While most of the naval warfare in World War I occurred in the North Sea, there were engagements in the Pacific theatre. At the beginning of August 1914, the German East India Squadron, under Admiral von Spee, exited the Pacific theatre from their base at Tsingtao and headed towards Germany.... More
The Cathars presented perhaps the most radical threat to Christian orthodoxy in the Middle Ages, believing that there were two Gods, the God of the spiritual world and the God of the material world in which the soul was imprisoned. To free their souls the Cathars renounced the things of... More
By September 1962, the US government had gathered sufficient intelligence to confirm that Russia was building long and medium range nuclear missile bases in Cuba. These missiles could reach continental America within minutes. Kennedy finally organized a quarantine of ships travelling into Cuba, blocking any that were carrying weapons. The... More
When the Roman emperor, Domitian, launched a punitive expedition against the Dacians, he suffered humiliating defeat at Sarmizegethusa in 88 CE. The Dacian general that day, Decebalus, became their king, and secured an annual retainer from the Romans to keep the peace. When Trajan became emperor in 98 CE, he... More
After the fall of France, Charles de Gaulle enjoyed British support as the nominal leader of the Free French. Dakar in French West Africa was a leading naval base and home to valuable gold reserves, but the British bombardment of the French Navy at the Algerian port of Mers-el-Kébir on... More
By the 8th century the four main Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia and Northumbria. But in the 9th century sporadic Viking raiders began to arrive from the north and the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms faced a huge upheaval. After a period of In 865 the Danes mounted a full-scale invasion,... More