The first successful English colonization of America began with the settlement at Jamestown (so named after King James I) in the region christened ‘Virginia’ by Elizabeth I. The settlers, who searched in vain for gold, initially faced great hardships of famine, disease and conflict with the native tribes. Their breakthrough... More
The Combat Box was a tactical formation used by the bombers US 8th and 15th Air Force, which concentrated the power of the bombers’ guns and also ensured they landed on target. Even when the bombers were accompanied by fighter escorts, which happened increasingly from 1944 onwards, the combat box... More
The premise of the Confederate campaign in Kentucky appeared to be sound; it was reasoned that a joint invasion of pro-secession Kentucky by Generals Bragg and Kirby Smith would bring Kentuckians flooding to the Confederate cause. Rapid progress was made: Smith won a skirmish at Richmond, Bragg seized Munfordville. Buell’s... More
From 2014 there was a long stalemate in Ukraine, with intermittent conflict along the front-line separating Russian- and Ukrainian-controlled regions in the southeast. On 21 April 2019, Voldomyr Zelensky was elected president in the second round of the presidential election. The drift toward the west continued with an intent to... More
After a disputed succession, Athelstan first sought to extend his influence circumspectly, purchasing Amounderness from Norse settlers, and allying himself by marriage with Sihtric, the Danish king of York. However, Sihtric died in 927, and Athelstan seized the opportunity to invade, occupying the kingdom of Northumbria. The kings of Scotland... More
The Schlieffen Plan specified passage through Belgium, a neutral country. Rather implausibly, Count von Schlieffen had contended that Belgian neutrality might be preserved if they simply allowed the German armies free passage. In the event, the Germans claimed that French officers had been secretly passing through Belgium to Germany, so... More
In October 1518 Hernán Cortés led an expedition, funded by the governor of the Spanish colony on Cuba, Diego Velázquez, along the coast of Mexico in search of trade prospects. On his journey west, Cortés made contact with Gerónimo de Aguilar who had been living amongst the Mayans of the... More
Tamerlane (Timur) was a Turko-Mongol conqueror who exploited the vacuum created by the disintegration of the Mongol Empire. A vizier in the Chagatai Khanate, he later claimed to be a direct descendant of Genghis Khan, enabling him to become the ‘legitimate’ ruler of a new Mongol dynasty. By 1400, his... More
By 1797 the First French Republic, which had been established as a result of the French Revolution in 1789, had begun its territorial expansion into neighbouring states. Many other states within Europe, including Spain, Britain, the Dutch Republic and the Habsburg Monarchy had come together under the First Coalition from... More
The site of Troy, near the Dardanelles Straits in northwestern Turkey, was first extensively excavated by Heinrich von Schliemann (1870–90). He was guided by earlier speculation that it might house the remains of the famous city of antiquity laid siege to by the Mycenaean Greeks, and immortalized by Homer. The... More
The Coptic Orthodox church traced its foundation to the apostle Mark, who is traditionally held to have brought Christianity to Egypt in the first century CE. The Copts, who were Miaphysites (holding that Jesus is fully divine and fully human), split from the broader Christian community in 451. The Coptic... More
The term ‘Cotton Belt’ refers to the region in the southern US where, from 1801–60, cotton became the predominant cash crop. Prior to the invention of the cotton gin (1794), which abnegated the need for manual separation of cotton fibres from the seed, cotton growth was confined to the lower... More