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The Chechen Wars, 1994–2003
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The Chechen Wars, 1994–2003
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Chechnya, which became part of the Russian Empire in 1859, has a lengthy history of conflict and persecution, most notably under Stalin’s rule post-World War II. With the fall of the Soviet Union minority regions within Russia were offered varying degrees of autonomy; however, Chechnya rejected proposals and pursued full... More
The Chesapeake & Ohio Railway 1868–1980
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The Chesapeake & Ohio Railway 1868–1980
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The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, (C&O) was the result of the merger of several Virginian railroads. Its major shareholder, Collis Potter Huntington, had already invested in the Central Pacific Railroad and wanted an eastern connection to create a transcontinental railroad. Construction began in 1869–73, with new tracks laid in coal-rich... More
The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad 1856–1970
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The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad 1856–1970
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The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad (CB&Q) is a transcontinental line, which has as its slogan, ‘Everywhere West’. It came into existence in 1856 when the Aurora Branch Railroad became the CB&Q. It went from a state railroad to one that included Burlington, Iowa, and Quincy, Illinois. This gave it... More
The Chinese Economy 1983–97
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The Chinese Economy 1983–97
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Years of centralized control and international isolation had resulted in a moribund and hugely inefficient Chinese economy, but when in 1979 the ‘sleeping giant’ was awoken by free-market reforms and foreign investment and trade, it began to achieve astonishing rates of growth. Farmers were allowed to sell produce in a... More
The Christian Churches of Manila c. 1650
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The Christian Churches of Manila c. 1650
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The one significant Spanish territory in Asia was the Philippines, first claimed for Spain by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 and named for a Spanish king. The first Catholic mass was conducted on the island of Limasawa on Easter Sunday, 1521. Within a month the king and queen of Cebu had... More
The City of Rome c. 1000
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The City of Rome c. 1000
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Following the end of the Roman Empire the ‘patrimony of Saint Peter’ consisted of a jumble of far-flung estates bequeathed to the papacy by wealthy Romans in the twilight of the Empire. However, the Byzantine Emperor had confiscated papal estates in southern Italy, Sicily and Illyricum during the great Iconoclastic... More
The City of Rome c. 14 CE
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The City of Rome c. 14 CE
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In his memoir, the Roman Emperor Augustus claimed ‘I found a city made of sun-dried brick, I left her clothed in marble’. Above all, Augustus brought the gift of peace, after the protracted civil war that saw his emergence. In his long reign (31 BCE–14 CE) he went on to... More
The City of Rome c. 235–312 CE
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The City of Rome c. 235–312 CE
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During this period, the Roman Empire became a tetrarchy (ruled by four emperors), and nearly collapsed under the pressure of internal disputes, economic depression, plague and revolts. Rome, the capital of the empire, became increasingly vulnerable to attacks from Germanic tribes. In 271–275 CE, Emperor Aurelian built a defensive city... More
The City-States 8th century BCE
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The City-States 8th century BCE
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In the competitive and turbulent environment of archaic Greece, the establishment of colonies gave the domestic city-states an edge over their rivals. This rivalry was also supra-national: the Etruscans and Phoenicians were also very active seafaring traders and colonizers in this period. In the 8th century BCE, ‘homeland’ Greece, to... More
The Cloth Industry in England 1500
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The Cloth Industry in England 1500
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British wool was prized for its quality throughout Europe, providing the raw material of choice for Flemish weavers and inspiring a flourishing medieval export trade. Edward III’s formation of the Merchants of the Staple trade monopoly to finance the Hundred Years’ War inadvertently produced a domestic cloth industry by rendering... More
The Cloth Industry in England c. 1720
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The Cloth Industry in England c. 1720
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At the beginning of the Georgian period, the English cloth industry was still overwhelmingly small in scale, either cottage-based or in small mills employing up to 30 weavers. There were pronounced regional specialisms in the products produced, as noted enthusiastically by the author and essayist Daniel Defoe in his travelogues.... More
The Collapse of Mycenae c. 1200 BCE
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The Collapse of Mycenae c. 1200 BCE
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Mycenaean civilization reached a peak in about 1300 BCE, but just a century later the palaces were abandoned and villages were burned. Traditional accounts theorized that the Mycenaean centres were destroyed by invading Dorian invaders, but archaeological evidence now seems to point to a range of factors, including: drought, harvest... More