At the beginning of the war, the British and German administrations alike were opposed to the bombing of civilian targets, instead restricting bombing runs to important military targets. As the war progressed and the war efforts of both sides increased to keep up with the demands of increasingly pervasive fighting... More
In 1852, British chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli, described the colonies as a ‘millstone around our necks’. The abolition of slavery in the West Indies and costly anti-slavery naval patrols off West Africa were draining the Empire’s economic resources. By 1848, Britain had gained direct and indirect control over... More
By 1800, the British had yet to achieve an empire on which ‘the sun never sets’, but British possessions were scattered across the globe. During the Napoleonic Wars, British naval supremacy enabled it to annex overseas territories from France, and by extension, its confederate, the Dutch. The strategic Cape of... More
The 15th century was book-ended by usurpations; at the outset Henry Bolingbroke from the House of Lancaster seized the throne from the effete and extravagant Richard II (leaving him to starve in prison) then vanquished the upstart Percys (and Owain Glyndwr) at Shrewsbury (1403) and Bramham Moor (1408). The cloud... More
Excavations from cave sites, such as Wookey Hole and Creswell Crags, show butchered deer bones and other signs of human activity, dating to c. 16,000 BP. This is thought to be a temporary reoccupation, after the human population deserted England and northeastern Ireland for warmer climates during the glacial period.... More
For most of the 13th century, weak kings in England saw their control over the bordering territories diminish. Although an anti-Norman Gaelic alliance was beaten at Down (1260) in northern Ireland, the independent Irish chieftains drove out their English-Norman overlords between 1261–74. By the 14th century the English residue huddled... More
Between 550–600 CE, the Angle and Saxon kingdoms were established on the east and south coasts of England. The Romano-British territories had disappeared or splintered, due to internal fighting and inheritance laws that divided land between all surviving sons. The Germanic people (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) first arrived as mercenaries... More
The English Civil War (1642–46) in turn created a Scottish civil war, in which Royalists, under the 1st Marquis of Montrose, fought the Covenanters. The Covenanters were Scottish Presbyterians, who controlled Parliament and allied themselves with the anti-Royalist English Parliament. After the king’s capture in 1646 he made a secret... More
In the lead-up to the American Revolution of 1776, British troop dispositions were overwhelmingly directed towards an external threat. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Britain had gained possession of the Province of Québec and the land east of the Mississippi from France, plus Florida from Spain. It was... More
The British Raj came into being as an aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Britain’s Indian possessions grew out of the trading arrangements of the English East India Company founded in 1600, which became the British East India Company after 1707. The company, with its network of trading stations... More
The motives for the invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce, younger brother of Robert, the king of the Scots, are tangled. He was either opening up a second front in elder brother Robert’s war with England or attempting to seize his own kingdom. The Scots army disembarked at Larne in... More
The Indians coined the term ‘Buffalo Soldiers’ for the African-American frontier regiments, either for their curls’ resemblance to tousled bison head-fur, or their predilection for buffalo-hide overcoats. Effectively banished from peacetime service east of the Mississippi, they were not immune from bigotry in the West. Custer refused to command black... More