The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 heralded the final dismantling of Ottoman rule in southern Europe. The Treaty of San Stefano confirmed the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, while Britain acquired Cyprus. However, Austria-Hungary and Britain were concerned about Russian dominance in the Balkans, and the subsequent Congress of Berlin... More
The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 carved the independent kingdoms of Serbia, Bulgaria and Montenegro from the crumbling Ottoman Empire. These new kingdoms sought the liberation of their nationals still under Ottoman rule. In concert with Greece, they formed the Balkan League and declared war against the Ottomans in... More
The Baltic trading town Lübeck was the early driving force behind the Hanseatic League (founded 1356), which evolved from a series of local commercial alliances. The League’s extensive network of Baltic ports exported resin, amber, wax, iron, copper, flax and timber and imported textiles, wines and spices. ‘Kontors’, massive walled... More
From the 13th century, the merchant cities of the Hanseatic League monopolized the lucrative Baltic trade in grain, timber, amber and iron. League members Lübeck and Danzig were also the major ship-building centres of the time. In the second half of the 16th century, the trade grew as nation states... More
Russia had annexed the former Reval and Livonia from Sweden by the Treaty of Nystad (1721), and they were renamed Estland and Livland governates in 1795. As part of that treaty, the territories were accorded a considerable degree of autonomy; their own landtags, or representative assemblies, and their own legal... More
The Baltimore and Ohio railroad had as its slogan: ‘Linking 13 Great States with the Nation’. It was chartered in 1827 and is the oldest common carrier (carrying goods and people) railroad in the United States. In 1962, it was acquired by the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad, which merged it... More
In 1881 David Barrow, a plantation owner in mid-Georgia, wrote a newspaper article describing the changes in his propertys stewardship and organization post-Emancipation. Two decades earlier, his father had owned 94 slaves, housed in communal quarters overlooked by the house of the overseer. After the Civil War, the now freed... More
By the closing stages of the Battle of the Somme the Allies, albeit at monumental cost, learned some lessons in how to deploy supporting artillery fire effectively. On 15 September, the Canadian advance at Courcelette was supported by a ‘creeping barrage’ enabling the advancing troops to inch forward during phased... More
The US declared war on Mexico in May 1846 and invaded Mexico on two different fronts. General Winfield Scott’s assault on Mexico City had been preceded by an amphibious assault and capture of the port of Vera Cruz in March 1847. The land invasion had been marked by a rout... More
By December 1942 265,000 Axis troops were trapped in the city of Stalingrad, and General Paulus, aware that his troops were doomed, requested to be allowed to surrender, but Hitler refused. In January the Germans began to retreat from the outer suburbs, congregating in the city. The loss of two... More
The Germans opened World War I by invading neutral Belgium on 4 August 1914. They captured Brussels unopposed on 20 August. Following a siege, Antwerp was captured on 9 October with Bruges, Ostend and Zeebrugge falling in rapid succession, leaving the remaining Allied forces bottled in a narrow wedge of... More
On 17 June, British batteries stormed the American positions on Bunker Hill in the Boston neighbourhood of Charlestown. It was their intention to defeat the American forces and gain control of Boston Harbour. At noon 2,200 Redcoats (British soldiers) landed on the coast near Moultons Hill. By afternoon they had... More