By 610, the Sui dynasty had united southern and northern China under a single administration, including a northwestern finger of territory through the Gobi Desert, along which ran the vital ‘Silk Road’ and other lucrative trade routes to Eurasia and Europe. In 618, a new ‘Tang’ dynasty, founded by provincial... More
On 15 September 1916, the British commander-in-chief, Sir Douglas Haig, attempted to end the deadlock in the Battle of the Somme by sending three divisions of the Canadian Corps to destroy the German strongholds in the village of Courcelette and to penetrate the German defensive line. The Canadians were to... More
The last battle of the Somme took place on 13–18 November 1916. The British had advanced northwards to the River Ancre, determined to push the Germans back and take three of their trench lines. The 39th Division had been holding Ancre since October and despite constant artillery barrage and aircraft... More
The Russian propensity for using unencrypted communications helped the implementation of General Hindenburg’s masterplan for the Battle of Tannenberg. It was established that the Russian General Rennenkampf’s 1st Army was moving on Konigsberg away from Samsonov’s 2nd Army. Hindenburg was then able to plan with some exactitude his attack on... More
Following the destruction of the encircled Russian 2nd Army at Tannenberg, the Germans pressed on towards the remaining Russian forces occupying East Prussia. After hearing news of this defeat, General Paul von Rennenkampf halted movement towards the Germans and was preparing to take up a more defensive position. His 1st... More
The Russian invasion of East Prussia took Germany by surprise. The Russians had secretly begun to mobilize ahead of the tsar’s proclamation of war on 30 July, so both the speed and the scale of their attack panicked the German commander, von Prittwitz, who requested permission to retreat behind the... More
In order to clear Japanese forces in between the site of the planned new base on the Marshall Islands and Hawaii, the heavily fortified airbase on Betio Island in the Tarawa Atoll needed to be destroyed. Betio was defended by 4,500 Japanese soldiers and an array of heavy fortifications and... More
Appointed governor of Indiana in 1803, William Henry Harrison embarked upon a vigorous programme of land acquisition from the native American inhabitants. By 1809, he had concluded eleven purchase treaties, but the last, the Treaty of Fort Wayne, proved highly contentious. A growing resistance movement emerged, whose spiritual leader was... More
Hierakonpolis was the capital of predynastic and early dynastic Upper Egypt. Its temple, built as a shrine to local hawk god, Horus, dates to c. 3400 BCE. It was first excavated in 1898. A clay-covered pile of discarded sacred objects, ‘the main deposit’, yielded numerous artefacts including a golden hawk... More
The ethnicity of the founders of the ancient city of Teotihuacán, lying 50 m (30 miles) northeast of modern Mexico City, is a matter of mystery and controversy. The consensus is that the Nahua, Otomi and Totonac peoples may all have played a part in its establishment, thought to have... More
Persia’s Qajar Dynasty (1813–1925) did not suffer a Century of Humiliation on a par with contemporaneous China, but ran them close. It shared with China the territorially voracious Russia as its northern neighbour. The second Shah, Fath-Ali, (r. 1797–1834), renowned chiefly for the luxuriance of his beard and the number... More
In 1840, the United States acquired territories in the southwest and on the Pacific coast. Around this time, there was a huge drive westwards with many Americans subscribing to a romantic belief that they would find economic prosperity in the arable lands around the Pacific coastline. There was also a... More