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Standard Byzantine Battle Formations c. 600–1071 CE
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Standard Byzantine Battle Formations c. 600–1071 CE
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In the first half of the 7th century CE, the extent of the Byzantine Empire was greatly reduced by the conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate. It responded with a comprehensive reorganization of its armed forces (659–62) adopting structure and battle tactics that would remain intact until the crushing defeat at... More
Standard Time Zones 1883
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Standard Time Zones 1883
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Greenwich Mean Time was introduced in 1675, in conjunction with the opening of the Royal Observatory, but it was introduced as a navigational aid for mariners, not to govern timekeeping practice, which remained highly localized. The development of railway travel accelerated the need for standardization; the accelerated pace of travel... More
Star Wars 1983–93
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Star Wars 1983–93
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On 23 March 1983 President Ronald Reagan announced a new national defence program called the Strategic Defence Initiative. It was later dubbed ‘Star Wars’ by the media due to the futuristic array of anti-missile systems for which it provided development funding. As the intercontinental ballistic missile arsenals of the US... More
State Laws on Abortion 1973–92
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State Laws on Abortion 1973–92
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In 1973, the US Supreme Court ruled that while abortion was legal (Roe v. Wade) individual states could impose their own restrictions, concerning dates of termination, parental disclosure and abortion risk information. Except for the states of Washington, New York, Alaska and Hawaii who, pre-1973, permitted abortion for any reason,... More
States That Never Were 1774–85
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States That Never Were 1774–85
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By the 1770s many colonists insisted that the British could not be allowed to impede expansion into the west. John Cartwright, a British parliamentary reformer, responded by making plans for 19 new colonies in 1774. He created carefully researched, comprehensive state maps. His plans were rejected because they were politically... More
Steam Engines in England c. 1800
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Steam Engines in England c. 1800
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Through most of the 18th century, the Newcomen steam engine dominated British industry, but it had shortcomings, which James Watt set out to address. In the 1760s, Watt produced an engine with greater fuel efficiency, but it was not until 1775 that he would design a model capable of the... More
Steele’s Arkansas Campaign 23 March–3 May 1864
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Steele’s Arkansas Campaign 23 March–3 May 1864
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The Arkansas Campaign began with the invasion of Little Rock, Arkansas, by Union Major General Frederick Steel in March 1864. The intention was both to force the Confederate garrison towns to capitulate and to meet up with Major General Nathaniel P. Banks’s Unionist Red River Expedition. On 23 March, Steele’s... More
Stone Circles and Henges c. 3500–1000 BCE
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Stone Circles and Henges c. 3500–1000 BCE
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Stone circles and henges first appeared on the British Isles c. 3500 BCE, during the Neolithic period. Over 900 still exist today. Henges (oval shaped, banked ditches) enclosed ritual structures, such as stone circles, or villages, seen in excavations of the henge at Durrington Walls. The largest Neolithic structure in... More
Stonehenge, Wiltshire from 3000 BCE
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Stonehenge, Wiltshire from 3000 BCE
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There is evidence for Stonehenge being a place of congress dating back 10,000 years, but the main enclosure (originally comprising a circular bank of chalk surrounded by a ditch, with two entrance points) dates to around 3000 BCE. Over the next few hundred years, concentric rings, first of timber and... More
Struggles of the Judges
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Struggles of the Judges
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The Biblical ‘Judges’ were military leaders as well as legal authorities; their precise job description is unclear. Each of those mentioned in the Book of Judges appeared to have led various confederations of Israelite tribes against external threat or oppression. Othniel delivers the tribe of Judah from the Aramites, Barak... More
Suez and Sinai Campaign October–November 1956
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Suez and Sinai Campaign October–November 1956
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The Suez and Sinai Campaign was the invasion of Egypt by Israel, France and Britain in October–November 1956. Egypt, increasingly hostile to Israel, began importing Soviet arms, nationalized the Suez Canal, signed a tripartite agreement with Syria and Jordan, placing Egyptian President Nasser in charge of their three armies, and... More
Suez Canal Campaign in Sinai 6–13 October 1973
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Suez Canal Campaign in Sinai 6–13 October 1973
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Launched on Yom Kippur, the Jewish holy day, the combined Egyptian/Syrian invasion of Sinai and the Golan Heights achieved near complete surprise. In the Suez Canal zone, the Egyptians opened up with massive aerial and artillery bombardment. Under this cover, troops moved across the canal en masse. The Bar-Lev line,... More