Kublai Khan conquered, but did not occupy, Burma, preferring to leave it weak and fragmented. The Shan hilltribes exploited the resultant instability, raiding constantly before strong successor states emerged in the late 14th century: the Ava kingdom of Upper Burma and the Hanthawaddy kingdom in Pegu. The poetically named ‘Kingdom... More
During the 15th century, Muslim traders and itinerant Sufist mystics spread Islam widely through Southeast Asia. As the Hindu maritime empire of Majapahit collapsed (finally conquered by the Sultanate of Demak in 1526), a throng of Islamic sultanates filled the vacuum. The Bruneian Empire had outposts in the Phillippines and... More
Spain began colonization of the Philippines in the 1560s, and through Philip II’s annexation of Portugal (1580) effectively inherited the latter’s established East Indies trading network. Desperate to emulate Spanish colonial wealth, the British and Dutch moved into the region, both opening bases in Bantam (1602, 1603), centre of the... More
The maritime kingdom of Srivijaya was the most powerful society in Southeast Asia for much of the latter half of the first millennium CE and the beginning of the second millennium CE. It was a thalassocracy (sea-based empire), and came to prominence as a large trading, manufacturing, commercial and religious... More
The first sustained British colony in the Americas was established in Virginia in 1607. To Virginia’s south, some patchy settlement occurred in Albemarle in the 1650s, but formal colonization of the Carolinas would only occur after the granting of a Royal Charter in 1663. In 1670, the Treaty of Madrid... More
Following the Allied landings in Italy at the beginning of September, the new Italian leadership reached an armistice with the Allies on 3 September, following the ousting of Mussolini on 25 July. This left the Germans to retreat northwards as the Allies made quick progress through the southern regions of... More
The Lwów–Sandomierz Offensive was launched in July 1944 using troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front under the command of General Ivan Konev. The offensive coincided with other Red Army operations further north, including the Lublin–Brest Offensive and Operation Bagration, which aimed to liberate Belorussia, in an attempt to draw German... More
Spanish exploration of the Southwest in the 16th century was spurred by a vain search for the fabled Seven Cities of Gold. Their expeditions fed on native reports – no doubt filtered through a prism of avarice – which probably derived from folk memories of the Anasazi Great Houses. Centred... More
Soviet ‘deep battle’ theory was a military doctrine first envisaged in the 1930s by Russian military writers and strategists who were looking to update Russian military tactics that had been exposed in recent conflicts. According to deep battle theory, the two well established levels of military planning, strategic and tactical,... More
When, at the outbreak of World War II, the Germans invaded Poland, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact then divided the country, allowing German control of the west, and Soviet control of the east. In June 1941 the Germans launched Operation Barbarossa, capturing eastern Poland, which was occupied until 20 July 1944, when... More
After the Battle of Kursk, the Germans were on the defensive in the Ukraine, and built a series of heavy fortifications along the Dnieper River. Against these, on 26 August 1943, the Red Army launched a series of rapid ground attacks on five fronts over a period of four months,... More
In December 1944 the Germans still occupied western Poland, while the Soviets were advancing on Germany from the south. Increasingly better equipped and more mobile, they assembled a huge force along the front between the Baltic Sea and the Carpathian Mountains, but Hitler was sceptical of their capabilities and failed... More