The French Revolution and Napoleonic wars had swept away the old aristocratic-clerical dominance of the hierarchy, and Catholics all over Europe looked once again to the ultimate authority of the pope. The papacy regarded the upsurge of liberal and nationalist movements in the 19th century with great suspicion. 1848 was... More
The empire founded by Seleucus, one of the heir-generals of Alexander the Great, was entering a prolonged death spiral by 167 BCE, when revolt erupted in Judaea. Battered by the rising power of Parthia, bullied by the established power of Rome, the Seleucids were increasingly plagued by civil unrest and... More
After the joint Austro-German and Bulgarian victory over Serbia in 1915, the Serbian forces retreated to Albania aiming to make their escape to the Adriatic. Their retreat was covered by their Montenegrin allies, who remained to defend their own territory, and a Franco-British relief force. Accordingly, the Serbians were not... More
Tsar Alexander I’s revolutionary abolition of serfdom in 1861 was a major step in modernizing Russian society, which was severely lagging behind its western European counterparts in many respects. The Crimean War in particular had highlighted the shortcomings of Russia’s military, which was comprised mainly of serfs, so Alexander set... More
In 1849, two galvanic forces drove settlers through America’s western frontier in unprecedented numbers: Mormon and Mammon. Brigham Young, the leader of the Church of Latter Day Saints, briefly established the theocratic state of Deseret with thousands of his followers in the deserts of Utah. In California, tens of thousands... More
Hugh de Lacy was a substantial landholder in the Welsh Marches when he accompanied Henry II on his invasion of Ireland (1171). The following year, he was deputed to receive the submission of Rory O’ Connor, the High King of Ireland to Henry and, mission accomplished, was rewarded with the... More
Around 50,000 years ago lower sea levels produced a contiguous landmass in western Indonesia from which early humans island-hopped to the then-fused New Guinea and Australia. The next plunge, into the Pacific, began in around 1500 BCE, possibly linked to the evolution of the twin hulled sailing canoe. Roughly contemporaneous... More
By 1750, Africans were rapidly overtaking the English as the largest numerical component of the population of the American colonies. They were, overwhelmingly, slaves imported to work the fast expanding tobacco, rice and indigo plantations of the South. The other fast-growing immigrant group was the Germans; great numbers from the... More
The distorted demography of early colonial Virginia reflected the harshness of frontier settlement. In the 17th century, male migration exceeded female by a ratio of 6:1, and most male migrants were in their 20s. High mortality rates from hunger, disease and Indian attack often disproportionately affected women. Efforts were made... More
Founded by King Tang when he overthrew the tyrannical Xia King Jie at the Battle of Mingtiao, the Shang dynasty lasted for over 600 years and was ruled by 30 emperors. Tang introduced a period of stability and prosperity, setting a fine example of leadership for future rulers. The Shang... More
At the beginning of the Reconstruction (1865–77) of the American South, new President Andrew Johnson ordered the return of federally held land to its previous owners. This created a landscape of land-rich but cash-poor planters in desperate need of a labour force. Freed slaves provided the bulk of that workforce,... More
The Assiniboine and Chippewa were originally fierce rivals. In the 18th century, the Chippewa migrated westward into the Assiniboine’s traditional hunting grounds in the Canadian Great Plains, gaining dominance through musketry and horses obtained from trade with the French. However, by the 1740s, early explorers observed the tribes operating in... More