After the numerous smaller language groups outlined by John Powell in 1891, later theories moved towards broader categorizations. Edward Sapir’s theory on the existence of six super-stocks, which was released in its most notable form in Encyclopaedia Britannica in 1929, made a number of amalgamations of Native American language stocks... More
General Burgoyne’s plan to split the rebellious colonies along the Hudson River and to isolate New England, ended in major defeat for the British in the American Revolutionary War. There was to be a two-pronged attack at Saratoga; General St Leger was to travel through the St Lawrence River and... More
In the middle of the 11th century BCE, the tribes of Israel were in a precarious situation, surrounded by warlike kingdoms and city-states. To better organize their defence, the Prophet Samuel summoned a tribal gathering at which Saul was acclaimed the first Israelite king. Saul swiftly proved his value, by... More
For much of the High Middle Ages, Scandinavian rulers devoted as much energy to internal disputes as to external expansion. Both Sweden and Norway lapsed into a century of instability in the 1130s. Sweden’s revival began with Birger Jarl Magnusson, regent in the 1240s, who led a crusade into Finland,... More
Whatever the size of your school this subscription will give unlimited access to the site and free downloads for teachers and pupils. Once your institutional subscription is in place, and you have been supplied with your institutional log-on, your members will be able to access all downloadable products, watermark-free, for... More
Henry VIII’s vaunting ambition inspired one of the periodic revivals of the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France, much to Scotland’s detriment. Successive invasions of England in support of the French cause ended disastrously at Flodden Field (1513) and Solway Moss (1542). During the infancy of Mary, Queen of Scots,... More
Some time around 839, the Norse Vikings inflicted a crushing defeat on the kings of the Picts and Dalriada, both of whom were slain in the battle. Dalriada, which had extended over Scotland’s western coasts and islands, was eventually annexed into the Norse earldom of Orkney. In the immediate aftermath... More
Between 1639–51, England, Scotland and Ireland fought the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1639, King Charles I unsuccessfully used military means to coerce Scotland into adopting Anglican religious practices. The Scots, most of whom were Covenanters – a dissenting Protestant group, resisted and the ‘Bishops’ Wars’ ensued. Meanwhile, the... More
From about 1760, the first wave of Scottish industrialization began. Prior to 1760, linen production was an important part of the Scottish economy, with crofters spinning hemp and flax to produce cambric and fine linens for the English and continental markets. The export market was controlled by linen stamp offices.... More
Once again, the Noyon salient was targeted in the autumn of 1915. As the French accumulated resources in the region in preparation for an assault, the Germans were able to fortify their position, creating a secondary defensive trench line known as the Rückstellung around 2 miles (3 km) back from... More
After the concluding debacle of the Peninsula Campaign, Lincoln drafted General John Pope to command a new Army of Virginia. Pope was commanded to link up with McClellan’s Army of the Potomac, but he had been appointed as an antidote to McClellan’s discredited ultra-caution, and he resolved to demonstrate the... More
‘All quiet on the Western Front’ was the German modus operandi for most of 1915, concentrating instead on trying to gain supremacy in the east. The Second Battle of Ypres was a rare exception, used by the Germans to test lethal chlorine gas for the first time on a battlefield;... More