Prior to its dissolution in 1991, the USSR was 24.4 million square miles (63 million square Km) and covered a sixth of the world’s land surface. It straddles two continents, Europe and Asia, with the Ural Mountains, running through Chelyabinsk and Perm, acting as a partition. Russia has vast natural... More
Much of Peter the Great’s inspiration for the sweeping reforms he would make in Russia came from his visit to western Europe in 1697 during the Grand Embassy. Although the mission’s original aim, to secure diplomatic backing against the Ottomans, failed, it provided the tsar with invaluable first-hand experience of... More
Significant Russian minorities persist in all the ex-Soviet countries, ranging from just 2 per cent of Armenia’s population to over a third of the Latvian population. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, these expatriates were allowed a window to transfer from Soviet to Russian citizenship. For those who chose... More
Russia is the dominant oil and gas exporter to Europe supplying around a third of its oil and more than a quarter of its natural gas. The European Union imports 90 per cent of its energy needs, and the dependency on Russian gas, while less in percentage terms, is viewed... More
Russian armies of serf conscripts were outfought by their Western opponents in the Crimean War (1853–56). This, combined with the spiralling rural unrest the demands of war had triggered, led Emperor Alexander II to embark an ambitious programme of reform (1861–65), beginning with the emancipation of serfs. Zemstva, a basic... More
The Russian Federation of Vladimir Putin showed a profound solidarity with the drive for self-determination in Abkhazia and South Ossetia that was curiously absent in its dealings with the neighbouring members of the Russian Federation. Triggered by a Georgian invasion of South Ossetia on 7 August 2008 (in response to... More
In the second half of the 19th century, the emerging imperial powers, Japan and Russia, vied in seizing territory from an enfeebled China. By the Treaty of Aigun (1858) Russia annexed Amur; the Treaty of Tientsin (1860) conferred Ussurri. The Sino-Japanese war (1894–95) gave Japan sway over Korea, but Russia... More
Founded by Shah Ismail in the early 1500s, the Safavid dynasty broke with the Sunni Muslims, declared independence and enforced Shiite Islam as their state religion. Safavid power and territory grew quickly, yet the empire was prone to Sunni attack from the Uzbeks in the North, Mughals in the east... More
After the death of his father, Neko I, in battle with the invading Kushite (Nubian) king, Tantamani, Psamtek I could exploit the crushing of the Kush by his Assyrian overlord, Ashurbanipal, by establishing an independent foothold in Lower Egypt based on the city of Sais. In the opening years of... More
Greece hosted two substantial Allied forces in 1917 with a strength of c. 600,000. The French General, Maurice Sarrail, commanded the Allied Army of the Orient comprising French, British, Serbian, Greek and Russian brigades and Lieutenant General George Milne commanded the British Salonika Force (BSF). The government of Greece was,... More
After the numerous smaller language groups outlined by John Powell in 1891, later theories moved towards broader categorizations. Edward Sapir’s theory on the existence of six super-stocks, which was released in its most notable form in Encyclopaedia Britannica in 1929, made a number of amalgamations of Native American language stocks... More
General Burgoyne’s plan to split the rebellious colonies along the Hudson River and to isolate New England, ended in major defeat for the British in the American Revolutionary War. There was to be a two-pronged attack at Saratoga; General St Leger was to travel through the St Lawrence River and... More