On 5 November 1914, the Austro-Hungarian 5th and 6th Armies entered Serbia, pushing the Serbians back to the Kolubara line. Between the 16–22 November the Austro-Hungarians launched a third series of assaults on Serbian defenses on the Kolubara line, with the objective of seizing the strategically important town of Lazarevac.... More
Of all the major protagonists in World War 1, Austria-Hungary had the highest percentage of its borders abutting on enemy territory. At various stages, it was invaded by Serbia, Romania, Italy, Russia and even Montenegro. It was also landlocked, except for the Adriatic coast which was effectively blockaded by Allied... More
Since the fall of Constantinople in 1571, the Ottoman Empire had expanded into Europe. In 1683, Ottoman forces under military leader and grand vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha invaded Austria and besieged Vienna. A huge relief army of Poles, Germans and Austrian allies under King Jan III Sobieski of Poland overcome... More
The apparent chronology of the construction of Avebury is counterintuitive, with the inner circles seeming to have been erected first, around 3000 BCE, followed by the protective earthworks, which are some 380 yards (350 m) in diameter. The final major work was the outer circle of standing stones rimming the... More
Italian forces initially invaded in October 1940. The Hellenic Army performed well, driving the Italians back towards their protectorate, Albania. But this left them hopelessly exposed to a trademark German Blitzkrieg in April, 1941. By June, the conquest was complete, and Greece was parcelled up between the Axis powers: Germany... More
The Great Smog that enveloped London in December 1952 is variously estimated to have caused 4,000–12,000 deaths. The Smog crystallized a growing British post-war disenchantment with urban living, evident in the shift to the suburbs. Government policy had already endorsed and promoted the shift through the New Towns Act (1946),... More
Ancient Babylon had two main lines of defence: an outer triangle formed by ramparts striking east from the Euphrates, and an inner rectangle of triple mud-brick walls enclosed by a moat. Eight fortified gates pierced the walls. The grandest, Ishtar Gate, was vast and ornate, leading to the Processional Way,... More
In the early 1670s, settler encroachment into Indian territory on Virginia’s western borders had created an escalating cycle of retaliation and reprisal. The colony’s governor, William Berkeley, advocated containment by building a line of fortifications. The settlers, led by Nathaniel Bacon, saw this as a block to their westward expansion... More
Baghdad’s religious make-up has historically been contested between Sunni and Shia Muslims, however the 2003 invasion by the US and its allies provided the backdrop for a sharp rise in sectarian violence. This violence fully erupted in 2006 following the 22 February bombing of the al-Askari mosque in Samarra, one... More
In the 1830s the Balkan Peninsula was no longer entirely under Ottoman control as the Ottoman Empire began to lose its grip on its vassal states. This was reflected in the Greek Wars of Independence that, with the help of Russia, the United Kingdom and France, led to the formation... More
The revolt of 132 CE was the third major Roman-Jewish conflict. It arose after the Romans began enforcing laws that restricted Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, and started construction of a Roman city overlaying ancient Jerusalem. Jewish leader Simon Bar Kokhba quickly amassed a large following after being hailed... More
The word 'barbarian’ was used first by Greek and then by Roman historians to denote peoples whose languages they could not understand, hearing them as stammerers ("bar-bar-bar..."). The word came by association to mean groups or tribes whom the Romans viewed as primitive, uncivilized and outside their culture and control.... More