The Celtiberians of central Iberia fought as mercenaries in the Punic Wars (264–146 BCE), supporting Carthage against the Roman incursion into Carthaginian Iberia. The Carthaginian hold on Iberia was broken after the Roman victory at IIipa in 206 BCE. The southern and eastern Iberian Peninsula became a Roman province and,... More
In 387 BCE, Rome was sacked by an invading Gallic army, a humiliation which proved a catalyst for subsequent campaigns, which would end in Roman dominance of the Italian peninsula. The Latin League, an alliance of city states centred upon Aricia, had refused to help Rome against the Gauls and... More
On returning to Rome following his victory in Egypt, Augustus assuaged the Roman senators’ deep-rooted suspicion of autocracy by renouncing all his powers and territories and handing them back to the Roman people. The grateful Senate granted him a province that embraced Gaul, Syria, Egypt and Cyprus. Because these territories... More
The young Gaius Octavius (Octavian) was Caesar’s adopted son. Claiming that it was his duty to avenge his father’s assassination, he now made a bold bid for power. Uniting with Caesar’s old allies Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus he formed the Second Triumvirate and went to war against Brutus... More
With the collapse of the Western Empire in 476 CE, western Europe was soon dominated by three emerging powers, which synthesized Roman institutions with their own cultural heritage to forge a new identity. The Merovingian dynasty of the Franks ruled much of present-day France and Germany, initially under Clovis I... More
The situation on the eastern frontier from 260 CE onwards was mainly catalyzed by the crisis of the third century, during which the Roman Empire suffered unprecedented in-fighting for control of the throne, and the death of Emperor Valerian in Persian captivity. In 267 CE, the death of Odaenathus, loyal... More
In 235 CE the death of Emperor Severus Alexander at the hands of his own soldiers began the ‘crisis’ of the third century during which numerous contenders fought for control of the empire. During this period of diminished imperial power, two breakaway states formed on the eastern and western fringes... More
The Western Roman Empire declined after the Gothic War (376–82 CE). In 406 CE, Asiatic horse warriors (the Huns) forced Germanic tribes, which included Vandali, Alans, Franks, Angles, Suevi and Saxons to cross the Rhine defences. The Vandali, Alans and Suevi moved southwards, where they fought with the Romano-Iberians and... More
Marco Polo was just 17 when he set out with his father and uncle, Venetian merchants who had already travelled through Asia, on their return visit to the court of the Mongol, Kublai Khan, in China. From Venice, they sailed to Acre and then veered north to avoid the warzone... More
In 1982, Argentina was ruled by a military junta presiding over an imploding economy and facing mass civil unrest. A new leader, General Galtieri, saw the invasion of the Falklands, a British overseas territory long claimed by Argentina, as a means of galvanizing popular support, calculating the British would not... More
The New Kingdom has considerable archaeological evidence of the pharaohs’ palace complexes. This, in addition to the depictions of domestic life in the tomb paintings, has provided insights into palace life. The palace construction and decoration had to signify the importance of kingship and reflect the pharaoh’s political and religious... More
Umm El Qa’ab is the necropolis at Abydos housing the tombs of the earliest dynastic rulers (1st and 2nd Dynasty). The area also has predynastic grave sites, indicating that its significance predated Narmer, the first acknowledged pharaoh. Whilst the attribution of Narmer’s tomb is not definitive, there appears to be... More