The Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867) allocated Cheyenne, Kiowa, Comanche and Arapaho reservations east of the Texas Panhandle, but the industrial-scale extermination of bison by commercial hunters soon threatened them with starvation. Incited by a spiritual leader who claimed he could make them bullet-proof and invisible, some 300 Indians attacked the... More
Indugences were payments to the Catholic Church that purchased a penance-free absolution for certain sins. The German Dominican Friar Johann Tetzel was an indulgence-seller supreme: his marketing jingle ‘when a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs’. The priest and theologist Martin Luther was outraged: his 95... More
The War of the Spanish Succession marked the culmination – and conclusion – of two centuries of conflicts driven by religious differences, which began with the Protestant Reformation. The war began as a consequence of the French king Louis XIV’s attempts to place his grandson on the Spanish throne, which... More
Hitler’s order to send German troops into the Rhineland demilitarized zone on 7 March 1936 was a fundamental breach of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which had been signed in an attempt to bring peace to Europe and hold Germany accountable for its role in World War I. It also... More
The early-mid 15th century saw a steady consolidation of the medieval city-states of northern Italy. In 1454, three of the most powerful states, Milan, Florence and Naples settled their territorial differences at the Peace of Lodi. There was calm until the 1490s, when Ludovico Sforza invited the armies of France,... More
The Republic of Texas came into being through the revolution of 1835–36 against the Mexican government. Mexico refused to recognize its independence, nor its subsequent annexation and granting of statehood by the United States in 1845. In 1848 Mexico was defeated in the ensuing US-Mexican War, and Texas, confirmed as... More
Republican Herbert Hoover swept to victory in the American presidential election of 1928. The 31st president took office in 1929, the year the economy plummeted and the greatest economic depression in American history began. Hoover alienated his electorate as he was perceived as unsympathetic, with an ineffectual Federal government. Such... More
Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston had fallen back to Resaca after a week of inconclusive skirmishing along Rocky Face Ridge, and was determined to make a stand. General Sherman’s Union army was effecting a crossing of the Oostanaula River downstream to threaten Johnston’s railroad supply lines, and ordered feinting attacks... More
On the second day at Resaca, a further feinting attack was ordered, while more Union troops traversed the Oostanaula downstream. The battle revolved around the Confederate ‘Cherokee’ Battery of four cannon, which had been positioned to fire on the Union lines. While other Union attacks were repulsed General Hooker’s men... More
General William Sherman described reservations as ‘ land entirely occupied by Indians and entirely surrounded by white thieves’. Unscrupulous agents bilked the Indians of supplies, and squatters and speculators gnawed away their land. The Cherokee and Delaware ‘outlets’, which were intended as free-passage corridors westward for the tribes to hunt,... More
President Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act in 1830. There followed the almost entirely involuntary displacement to the West of Native Americans with homelands ‘east of the Mississippi River’. Their passage westward became termed the ‘Trail of Tears’. The resettlement areas were in unorganized territory in a band traversing present-day... More
From the 16th century, the Danubian basin became the natural battleground of repeated wars between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs. After relieving the third Siege of Vienna (1683) and further victories confirmed by the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718), the Habsburgs could finally expel the Ottomans from the basin, and embarked... More